Academic Vocabulary I I Cambridge in Use 50 units of academic vocabulary reference and practice Self-study and classroom use Michael McCarthy Felicity ODell Academic Vocabulary in Use 50 units of academic vocabulary reference and practice Self-study and classroom use Michael AAcCarthy Felicity OvDell scambridge ■ ■ - ^ y -mm m m UNIVERSITY PRESS CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, Sao Paulo, Delhi Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521689397 © Cambridge University Press 2008 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published 2008 Produced by Kamae Design, Oxford Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library 1SBN-13 978-0-521-68939-7 paperback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. Contents Acknowledgements 5 To the student and the teacher 6 Working with academic vocabulary 1 What is special about academic English? discipline, virtually, quantify 2 Key nouns 3 Key verbs 4 Key adjectives 5 Key adverbs 6 Phrasal verbs in academic English 7 Key quantifying expressions 8 Words with several meanings 9 Metaphors and idioms Word combinations 10 Nouns and the words they combine with 11 Adjective and noun combinations 12 Verbs and the words they combine with 13 Prepositional phrases 14 Verbs and prepositions 15 Nouns and prepositions 16 Fixed expressions At academic institutions 17 Applications and application forms 18 College and university: the UK system 19 Systems compared: the US and the UK 20 Academic courses 21 Study habits and skills 22 Online learning Ways of talking about ... 23 Sources 24 Facts, evidence and data 25 Numbers 26 Statistics 27 Graphs and diagrams 28 Money and education 29 Time 30 Cause and effect theory, model, pattern attempt, establish, explain relevant, abstract, significant comparatively, eventually, simply put forward, go through, write up a substantial amount, in excess of, no fewer than set, accommodate, issue shed light on, remain in the dark, the battle against heated debate, pivotal role, to collate results important contribution, major concern, widespread support loosely based on, examine the evidence, suggest an alternative solution in conjunction with, on behalf of, for the most part focus on, consent to, account for dissertation on, rationale for, progress towards in a variety of ways, with the exception of, be that as it may entry requirements, referee, deadline student union, tutorial, research student dormitory, freshman, fraternity diploma, credits, defer reading speed, mind map, rote learning online community, username, subject header primary source, draw on, body of literature distort the facts, hard evidence, empirical data random, tally, estimate standard deviation, correlate, proportion pie chart, intersect, decline student loan, cost of living, receipt century, simultaneous, in the near future trigger, give rise to, chain reaction Academic Vocabulary in Use 3 Opinions and ideas 31 Talking about ideas 32 Reporting what others say 33 Analysis of results 34 Talking about meaning 35 Research and study aims 36 Talking about points of view 37 Degrees of certainty Functions 38 Presenting an argument 39 Organising your writing 40 Making a presentation 41 Describing research methods 42 Classifying 43 Making connections 44 Comparing and contrasting 45 Describing problems 46 Describing situations 47 Processes and procedures 48 Describing change 49 Evaluation and emphasis 50 Summary and conclusion Reading and vocabulary 1 Good friends 110 2 Australia 111 3 The World Wide Web 112 4 The human brain 113 5 Nanotechnology 114 6 International law: an overview 115 Reference 1 Formal and informal academic words and expressions 116 2 Numbers, units of measurement and common symbols 120 3 British and North American academic vocabulary 122 4 Spelling variations 126 5 Word formation 128 6 Abbreviations 132 Key 136 List of phonemic symbols 166 Index 167 movement, hypothesis, stance pinpoint, cast doubt on, implication deduce, outweigh, critical transparent, comprehend, misinterpret objective, to further, instigate impartial, ideology, hold views tendency, likelihood, allegedly beyond the scope of, furthermore, the extent to which with a focus on, at this point, respectively address a topic, handout, take questions carry out a procedure, case study, replicate component, consist of, marital status correlate with, mutual, interaction distinction, similarly, whereas experience difficulties, deal with, resolve a problem context, integral, stable simulation, to supplement, output expansion, diminish, perceptible change inadequate, contradictory, acknowledge bring to a close, in the final analysis, finally 4 Academic Vocabulary in Use Acknowledgements Authors' acknowledgements The authors wish to thank their colleagues at Cambridge University Press, especially Martine Walsh, Caroline Thiriau and Noirln Burke, whose wise expertise and support have been invaluable throughout this project. We are also very grateful for the thorough and useful input provided by Bernard Seal from Cambridge University Press New York. We thank Alison Silver for the professional job she carried out so efficiently in preparing the final manuscript for production and printing. Linda Matthews too deserves our thanks for organising the production schedules for the book. We must also thank the lexicography and computational team at Cambridge University Press whose work with the Cambridge International Corpus, the Cambridge Learner Corpus and the CANCODE corpus of spoken English (developed at the University of Nottingham in association with Cambridge University Press), enabled us to make a fully corpus-informed selection of the academic vocabulary we focus on in these materials. We acknowledge with gratitude the pioneering work on academic word lists done by Averil Coxhead. In planning this book we made considerable use of her lists at http://language.massey.ac.nz/staff/awl/index.shtml. Also, as always, we thank our domestic partners for their patience and support during the writing of this book. Michael McCarthy & Felicity O'Dell Cambridge, April 2007 Publisher's acknowledgements Development of this publication has made use of the Cambridge International Corpus (CIC). The CIC is a computerised database of contemporary spoken and written English which currently stands at over one billion words. It includes British English, American English and other varieties of English. It also includes the Cambridge Learner Corpus, developed in collaboration with the University of Cambridge ESOL Examinations. Cambridge University Press has built up the CIC to provide evidence about language use that helps to produce better language teaching materials. The authors and publishers would like to thank all the ELT professionals who reviewed the material: Sue Argent, Long Dalmahoy, Scotland; Jennifer Bixby, California, USA; Jane Bottomley, Manchester, UK; Cherry Campbell, California, USA; Anthony Cosgrove, London, UK; Rosie Ganne, London, UK; Ludmila Gorodetskaya, Moscow, Russia; Mark Krzanowski, London, UK; Joseph McVeigh, Vermont, USA; Julie Moore, Bristol, UK; Brendan 6 Se, Cork, Ireland; Barbara Roosken, Tilburg, The Netherlands. The authors and publishers would like to thank the following for permission to reproduce copyright material in Academic Vocabulary in Use. While every effort has been made, it has not been possible to identify the sources of all the material used and in such cases the publishers would welcome information from copyright holders. Cambridge University Press for the extracts on p. 14 (3A second text) from Mechanics 1 (International) by Douglas Quadling, copyright © 2002; p. 112 'The World Wide Web' from Telecommunications by Stuart Kennedy, copyright © 2001; p. 141 sentences from Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary, reproduced by permission of Cambridge University Press; NewScientist for the extracts on p. 25 (8.4) from NewScientist, 30 March 2006; p. 113 'The Human Brain' by Helen Philips, from NewScientist, 4 September 2006; p. 114 'Nanotechnology' by John Pickrell, from NewScientist, 4 September 2006, reproduced by permission of NewScientist Magazine; Scientific American for the extracts on p. 27 (9.3) 'Shutting down Alzheimer's' by Michael S. Wolfe, from Scientific American, 5 May 2006; p. 110 'Good Friends' by Klaus Manhart, from Scientific American, April/May 2006, reproduced by permission of Scientific American Inc. All rights reserved; Nature for the extract on p. 39 (15.4) from Nature Vol. 441, 4 May 2006, published by Nature Publishing Group; Indiana University for the extract on p. 55 (23.4), copyright © 2004, the Trustees of Indiana University, reproduced by permission of Indiana University; the Wikipedia website for the extract on p. 70 (31A) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page; ResCen, Middlesex University for the text on p. 78 (35B) from the Rescen Research website http://www.mdx.ac.uk/ rescen/main_pages/profile.html, reproduced hy permission of the Centre for Research into Creation in the Performing Arts (ResCen) at Middlesex University; Thomson Learning for the extract on p. Ill 'Australia' from World of Earth Science (Vol 1) by K. Lee Lerner and Brenda Wilmoth (Editor), copyright © 2003, reprinted with permission of Gale, a division of Thomson Learning: www.thomsonrights.com; Legal Information Institute for the adapted text on p. 115 'International law: an overview' from the website www.law. cornell.edu/wex/index.php/international_law, copyright Legal Information Institute 1996-2007, reproduced by permission of Legal Information Institute. Photographs The publishers are grateful to the following for permission to reproduce copyright photographs and material: p. 20 © Thomas Fricke/Corbis; p. 36 © Robert E. Daemmrich/Stone/Getty Images; p. 66 © John Henley/ CORBIS; p. 74 © age fotostock/SuperStock; p. 76 © Helen King/Corbis; p. 77 © Jerry Schatzberg/CORBIS; p. 88 © image 100/Corbis. Illustrations Kamae Design pp. 35, 40, 44, 60, 61, 62, 63 Academic Vocabulary in Use 5 To the student and the teacher Who is the book for? This book is for anyone who wants or needs to learn the kind of English which is used in academic contexts. It deals with the kinds of language used in academic textbooks and articles as well as in lectures and seminars. It also presents vocabulary relating to being a student at a university or college in that it covers such topics as Applications and application forms, Money and education and Academic courses associated with university life. It will be particularly useful for students preparing for IELTS or any other examination aimed at assessing whether candidates' English is at a high enough level to study in an academic institution where English is the medium of instruction. It will be helpful for people who need to attend - or indeed give - lectures and presentations in English or to participate in international conferences. It will enable students who have to prepare assignments or write up a dissertation in English to do so in a much more natural and appropriate way. What kind of vocabulary does the book deal with? The book presents and practises the kind of vocabulary that is used in academic speech and writing regardless of which discipline you are concerned with. So it considers words and expressions like concept, cast doubt on, put forward a theory and come to a conclusion. It does not deal with the specialist vocabulary of any particular subject such as medicine or physics. Such specialist terms are often relatively easy to master - they will be explained and taught as you study the subject and these words may indeed sometimes be similar in English and your own language. However, it is the more general words used for discussing ideas and research and for talking and writing about academic work that you need to be fully familiar with in order to feel comfortable in an academic environment. Despite the fact that they are much more frequent than specialist words, these more general words are often felt to be more difficult to learn. It is, therefore, extremely useful to approach them in the systematic way suggested by this book. One positive aspect of this kind of academic vocabulary is that there are relatively few differences depending on whether you are studying in London or New York, Delhi or Sydney, Johannesburg, Dublin, Wellington, Singapore or Toronto or indeed any other place where you may be using English for academic purposes. Academic English tends to be a truly international language and the units of the book focus on vocabulary that will be essential for you regardless of where you are studying now or may study in the future. There are some differences between the words used to describe people and places and these are highlighted in Units 18 and 19. References 3 and 4 also focus on some vocabulary and spelling variations. In the units of the book we use British English spelling conventions except when quoting texts which originally used American spelling. Much of the vocabulary in the book is neutral in the sense that it is equally appropriate for both written and spoken contexts. We indicate those instances where a word or expression is too formal for use in speech or too informal for use in academic writing. 6 Academic Vocabulary in Use How was the vocabulary for the book selected? The academic vocabulary focused on in this book was all selected from language identified as significant by the Cambridge International Corpus of written and spoken English and also the CANCODE corpus of spoken English developed at the University of Nottingham in association with Cambridge University Press. These enormous corpora include large collections of written and spoken academic text and so it was possible to identify language that is distinctive for academic contexts. We also made considerable use of the Cambridge Learner Corpus, a corpus of tens of thousands of learner scripts from students taking Cambridge ESOL exams all over the world. From this corpus we were able to learn what kinds of errors students taking, for example IELTS, were typically making. In planning this book we made considerable use of Averil Coxhead's work on developing academic word lists. Her lists can be found at http://language.massey.ac.nz/staff/awl/ index.shtml and we would highly recommend that students of academic vocabulary investigate this site. How is the book organised? The book has 50 two-page units. The left-hand page presents the academic vocabulary to be focused on in the unit. You will usually find examples of academic vocabulary presented in context with, where appropriate, any special notes about their meaning and usage. The right-hand page checks that you have understood the information on the left-hand page by giving you a series of exercises practising the language that was presented. The units are organised into different sections. The first introductory section includes nine units which look at basic aspects of academic vocabulary such as what is special about academic vocabulary, key verbs and key quantifying expressions. The second section devotes seven units to how words typically combine with one another in academic English. The third section has six units focusing on aspects of life at academic institutions. The fourth section provides eight units discussing ways of talking about such things as numbers, time and cause and effect. Then we have seven units exploring aspects of opinions and ideas and finally there are thirteen units with a functional focus such as organising a text, comparing and contrasting and describing change. Towards the end of the book you will find six reading texts relating to different academic disciplines with exercises based on the vocabulary in those texts. We hope that you will find these useful examples of how to use texts to expand your knowledge of academic vocabulary in English and would recommend that you read these texts and do the exercises on them even if they relate to an academic subject that is very different from your own. There are six reference sections dealing with some key areas where we felt it would be useful for you to have lists of items that could not be presented as fully in the main body of the book, i.e. Formal and informal academic words and expressions; Numbers, units of measurement and common symbols; British and North American academic vocabulary; Spelling variations; Word formation and Abbreviations. Where appropriate, these reference sections provide space for you to add further examples of your own. At the end of the book there is a Key with answers to all the exercises and an Index of all the key words and expressions, indicating the units where they can be found. The pronunciation is provided for standard British English. How should I use this book? We recommend that you work through the nine introductory units first so that you become familiar with key aspects of academic vocabulary and how best to study it. After that you may work on the units in any order that suits you. Academic Vocabulary in Use 7 What else do I need in order to improve my academic vocabulary? You need a notebook or file in which you can write down all the academic vocabulary that you study in this book as well as any other words and expressions that you come across elsewhere. In your vocabulary notebook it is important to record such things as: • examples of the word or expression in use • typical word combinations - you might, for example, note down adjectives or verbs typically associated with a noun that you want to learn or nouns, adverbs or prepositions associated with a verb • any special features of the word (e.g. is there anything special about its grammar or pronunciation, or is it particularly characteristic of either written or spoken English?). You may also find it helpful to record such things as: • any other information that might help you to learn the word (e.g. is it similar to any word in your own language, or does it, perhaps, share a root with a word that you already know?) • any additional vocabulary that learning this word may help you to learn (e.g. does a verb have a related noun, or what is the opposite of an adjective?) • any extended uses of the word being focused on (e.g. can it be used metaphorically, or does the same word have other meanings in the way that so many English words do?). One very important aspect of learning vocabulary is to organise the words and expressions you meet; this will help you remember them better. You can do this in a number of ways. In recording words many learners find it helpful to include little diagrams such as word bubbles, for example: inco*cliA$ive tsrcliMifvAry to ird:e.rf>re.t ■to Ars.Aly££ dCMO^-trAte or word forks, for example -to icteivtify -the — — CAW£££ A Common A* i£olA-ted A lAMveriAl You also need to have access to a good dictionary. We strongly recommend the Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary as this provides exactly the kind of information that you need in order to be able to understand and use English vocabulary. Through its example sentences it provides you with the information you need about how the word is used in practice and which other words it typically combines with. The dictionary also helps you with difficult items such as phrasal verbs, for example, indicating whether the object can come before the particle {set up the apparatus I set the apparatus up; go through a set of calculations, but not go a set of calculations through). This dictionary is available as a book and on a CD-ROM and can also be accessed online at www.dictionary.cambridge.org. You will need a specialist dictionary relating to your own subject area as well. Your teacher may also be able to recommend other dictionaries for your specific needs. 8 Academic Vocabulary in Use As well as working through the units in this book you should read as much English as you can in the subject areas that are most relevant for you. If you are new to studying in English, you could start by reading a textbook aimed at students at a slightly lower level than you are at as far as the subject area is concerned; or you might prefer to read the latest articles in your field from a journal or the internet. If you have easy access to the web, then there is an enormous wealth of material available for you to study and learn from; many universities and other academic institutions have extensive websites, for example, as do professional organisations and journals. So, good luck with your work in academic English. We hope that the materials in this book will help you to enjoy and to benefit fully from your studies. We hope you will be able to share ideas in a creative, exciting way with scholars from all over the world and we wish you the very best for a successful and rewarding academic life in English. Academic Vocabulary in Use 9 What is special about academic English? Everyday words and academic uses Many words in academic English are the same as everyday vocabulary, but they are often also used with a slightly different meaning, which may be specialised. everyday or academic use meaning academic use meaning Standards of discipline in schools have declined. ability to control oneself or other people Nanotechnology is a relatively new discipline. area of study Underline your family name on the form. draw a line under it The research underlines the importance of international trade agreements. gives emphasis to The lake was frozen solid. not liquid or gas We have no solid evidence that radiation has caused the problem. certain or safe; of a good standard Vocabulary and academic style • In writing, academics use many expressions which are neutral, but they also use rather formal expressions which are not common in everyday language. Knowing whether an expression is formal or just neutral is important. neutral more formal neutral more formal in short, briefly, basically in sum, to sum up try attempt only sole(ly) mainly/mostly primarily almost / more or less virtually typical of characteristic of However, very informal vocabulary may be used in spoken academic styles in classes and lectures. Learn to understand such language when you hear it but be careful not to use it in essays and written assignments. Here are some examples of teachers using informal language. 'OK. Have a shot at doing task number 3.' [more formal: Try/Attempt to do ...] 'There's no way schools can be held responsible for failures of government policy' [more formal: Schools cannot in any way be held ...] • Academic language tries to be clear and precise, so it is important to keep a vocabulary notebook (see page 8) and learn the differences between similar words, as well as typical word combinations (underlined here). The building is a prime example of 1920s architecture, [excellent in quality or value] The group's primary concern is to protect human rights, [main / most important] Noun phrases Academic language puts a lot of information into noun phrases rather than spreading it out over a whole sentence. For example, instead of saying Radiation was accidentally released over a 24-hour period, damaging a wide area for a long time, an academic might say The accidental release of radiation over a 24-hour period caused widespread long-term damage. It is therefore important to learn the different forms of a word, for example: noun verb adjective(s) adverb(s) accident accidental accidentally quantity/quantification quantify quantitative/quantifiable quantitatively/quantifiably Finally, be aware of 'chunks' or phrases which occur frequently, and learn them as whole units. Examples: in terms of, in addition, for the most part, in the case of, etc. (See Unit 16.) Academic Vocabulary in Use Exercises I. I Each word in the box can be used in two ways, one an everyday way, the other a typically academic way. Complete each pair of sentences using the same word for both sentences and making any necessary grammatical changes. generate turn solid confirm identify underline character pose nature focus 1 A She loves to for photographs in front of her fabulous house. B The events a threat to stability in the region. 2 A It was difficult to the camera on the flower as it was so small. B We should our attention on the most important issues. 3 A I called the airline and my reservation. B The data my hypothesis that animal-lovers enjoy better health. 4 A The power plant . electricity for the whole region. B This issue always a great deal of debate among academics. 5 A The murderer was from fingerprints discovered at the scene. B In this theory of history, progress is closely .... .........with technology. 6 A She became interested in conservation. B The first lecture in the series was on the of human communication. 7 A Jim's a very interesting . I hope you meet him. B The book attempts to explain the fundamental of social life. 8 A I saw her to her husband and whisper something in his ear. B Let us now to the subject of town planning. 9 A He always every new word when he's reading. B The study..... the fact that very little research exists. 10 A The liquid became . as the temperature was lowered. B The study lacks evidence and therefore its conclusions are doubtful 1.2 Use more formal alternatives to the words in bold. Make any necessary grammatical changes. 1 The book is mainly concerned with the problem of policing the internet. 2 Almost every school in the county had reported problems with the new system. 3 The work of the Institute is not only devoted to cancer research. 4 Basically, we believe we have demonstrated a significant link between the two events. 5 We tried to find a new way of understanding the data. 6 The study is a really good example of the way sociologists collect their data. 7 The reaction is typical of the way large corporations keep control of their markets. 8 There's no way London can be compared to Sydney as a place to live and work. 1.3 Read the text and then answer the questions. The production of plastics depends heavily on petroleum, but a novel way of making plastics out of sugar could reduce our reliance on oil. The discovery that a chemical in sugar can be converted relatively easily into a substance similar in structure to the material obtained from petroleum has led to the claim that plastics could soon be produced cheaply using the new method. 1 Underline two verbs with adverbs after them which it would be useful to learn as pairs. 2 Underline two adverbs next to each other which it would be useful to learn together. 3 What are the noun forms of the verbs produce, rely, discover and claim} Academic Vocabulary in Use I I Key nouns This unit focuses on some frequent and important nouns in academic English. See also Units 10, 11 and 15. General nouns referring to ideas example (with prepositions underlined) comment She wrote an article on the subject of class. thing which is being discussed, considered or studied The theme of the poem is emigration. main subject of a talk, book, etc. The students were given a list of essay topics. used to refer to what one is studying or writing about There was a lively debate on the issue of globalisation in the seminar yesterday. subject/problem which people are thinking/talking about Political theory is a popular undergraduate subject Einstein's theory of gravitation has been questioned recently. statement of the rules on which a subject of study is based or, more generally, an opinion or explanation The model of climate change presented in the Stern Review seems to be becoming a reality. a representation of something as a simple description which might be used in calculations The book is called 'The Nature of Intelligence'. main characteristic of something Human behaviour is based on the principle of least effort basic idea or rule that explains how something happens or works More specific nouns connected with ideas and phenomena example (with prepositions underlined) comment Repetition is an important aspect of speech development in children. one individual part of a situation, problem, subject etc. Automatic backup is a feature of the new software. a typical quality of something The political motives for the government's actions are beyond the scope of this essay. range of a subject covered by a book, discussion, class, etc. The study revealed a pattern of results which could be interpreted in either of two ways. showed a regularly repeated arrangement During 2005, the number of violent attacks increased to an alarming degree. amount or level Nouns referring to ways of thinking, processes and activities Read these titles of academic books and articles. Note the key nouns and their prepositions. Micro-organisms in water: their significance1 and identification2 Renewable energy: a critical assessment3 of recent research The Case4 for Change: Rethinking Teacher Education. Towards a New Approach5 Perspectives6 on Ecological Management: A study of public awareness7 of river pollution Citizens' Views on Healthcare Systems in the European Union Epidemiological research into8 asthma and allergic disease: establishing a standardised methodology9 1 importance 2 ability to establish the identity of something 3 judgement of the amount, value, quality or importance of 4 arguments, facts and reasons in support of or against something 5 way of considering something 6 different particular or individual ways of considering something 7 having special interest in or experience of something, and so being well informed 8 research is often also used with the preposition on 9 a system of ways of studying something %jf Research is uncountable. Don't say They carried out some interesting researches.To make it ^' 4 plural you can just say 'studies', or 'research studies' or 'pieces of research'. 12 Academic Vocabulary in Use Exercises 2.1 Look at A. Choose the most appropriate noun to complete each sentence. 1 Environmental topics I issues I principles should be at the top of today's political agenda. 2 In the exam students had to choose three from a choice of ten essay subjects I theories I topics. 3 There are still people who are reluctant to accept Darwin's model I topic I theory of evolution. 4 The professor decided to take moral courage as the issue I theme I model for his inaugural lecture. 5 The London underground map is best understood as a model I principle I topic showing how the different stations relate to one another rather than a precise representation of their distances from each other. 6 The Peter Issue I Principle I Theme states that members of a hierarchical group will usually end up being promoted to the point at which they become incompetent. 2.2 There are six phrases containing errors underlined in this paragraph. Can you correct them? The study showed that local police can play an important role in crime prevention. It makes a strong case of boosting the numbers of community police officers although it warns against increasing police presence on the streets at an alarming degree. Its methodological was based on a range of interviews asking members of the public for their views in how best to prevent crime. Unfortunately, how to implement this recommendation was out of the scope of the study but at least it serves a useful purpose in raising awareness to the issue. 2.3 Look at these titles of academic books (A-H). Then match them to their subject areas (1-8). A The Nature of Democracy B The Significance of Dreams C The Features of Glaciated Landscapes D The Assessment of Language Skills E An Approach to Free Verse F The Identification of Bees G Perspectives on Modern Taxation H New Perspectives on Cleopatra 1 economics 2 education 3 literature 4 history 5 geography 6 psychology 7 politics 8 zoology 2.4 Match the beginning of each sentence with 1 The study revealed a regular 2 The research focuses on one particular 3 The writer makes a powerful 4 The writers take an original 5 Until recently there was little 6 I think you should broaden the 7 To date, there has been little research 8 There are many important the most appropriate ending. scope of your research. awareness of the problem. issues facing the world today. into the environmental effects of nanoparticles. approach to their theme. aspect of modern society. pattern of changes in temperature. case for restructuring parliament. Academic Vocabulary in Use 13 Key verbs In this unit we look at some important verbs in academic English. Verbs for structuring academic assignments Look at these tasks which students have been given. Note the key verbs. Discuss some of the problems involved1 in investigating attitudes to diet and health. Write a critical review of an investigation you have read about, or describe an investigation you yourself could conduct2. Consider the advantages and disadvantages of different methods. Starting from rest, an aircraft accelerates to its take-off speed of 60 m s-1 in a distance of 900 metres. Illustrate3 this with a velocity-time graph. Assuming4 constant acceleration, find5 how long the take-off run lasts. Hence calculate6 the acceleration. 7 ft 'The fact that nations agree to follow international law demonstrates that we can identify ideals that are trans-national and trans-cultural.' How far is this statement true? Critically analyse any recent event which supports or challenges9 the statement. Examine10 how industrial growth has affected any two developing countries. Provide" statistical evidence where necessary and include a discussion of likely future trends. 1 which are part of/included in 2 organise and do 3 draw something in order to explain something 4 accepting something to be true 5 discover by calculating (see 6) 6 judge the number or amount of something and adding, multiplying, subtracting or dividing numbers 7 show, make clear 8 recognise someone or something and say or prove who or what they are 9 questions whether it is true 10 look at or consider carefully and in detail 11 give More key verbs These extracts from academic books contain other key verbs. In developing methods to explain the significance of health status measures, one can classify1 ways of establishing2 quality of life into two main types. The length of time spent on the tasks may account for3 the decrease in motivation which was seen4 in many of the participants. The data presented5 in Chapter 3 showed6 that the age of the subjects was not the main factor. Political theory attempts7 to build bridges between different schools of political thought. 1 divide things into groups according to their type 2 discover or get proof of 3 explain 4 see is often used in the passive in academic style 5 given 6 proved 7 (formal) tries Verbs which combine with noun forms of key verbs Often in academic style, a verb + the noun form of the key verb is used. verb verb + noun example explain give/provide/offer an explanation (of/for) The model provides an explanation for the differences between the two sets of data. explore carry out an exploration (of) Kumar carried out an exploration of music genius. emphasise place/put emphasis (on) The hospital puts a lot of emphasis on training nurses. describe give/provide a description (of) The book gives a description of modern Europe. The verbs affect and effect are different. To affect means to influence, to effect means to make something happen / to bring about. The burning of fossil fuels has negatively affected the global climate. The procedure has been successful and has effected a return to normal functioning of the engine. See Unit 30 for more on affect and effect. 14 Academic Vocabulary in Use Exercises 3.1 Match each verb from A in the box on the left with its synonym from the box on the right. affect attempt calculate challenge demonstrate compute distinguish give influence identify include investigate provide involve question show study try 3.2 Choose the best verb from B or C to complete these sentences. Put the verb into the correct form. 1 As can......................................from Table II, participation figures have been steadily falling since 1970. 2 Different authors have......................................for the President's actions in different ways. 3 Mendel attempted to devise a system for......................................the many different types of pea plant that he grew. 4 It is often most effective......................................your data in a chart or table. 5 The data we have collected.....................................that there has been a downward trend with regard to job satisfaction over the last 50 years. 6 The aim of the research is......................................a new software application which will help aviation engineers design more sophisticated aircraft. 7 The archaeologists should be able to use carbon dating techniques......................................exactly how old the bones are. 8 Charles Darwin attempted......................................the existence of different species in terms of evolution. 3.3 Explain the difference between the sentences in each pair. 1 Greig's article supports Park's theory. Greig's article challenges Park's theory. 2 Describe the new tax regulations. Discuss the new tax regulations. 3 Lodhi provides new data. Lodhi considers new data. 4 Titova conducted four sets of experiments. Titova examined four sets of experiments. 5 Lee established why such changes occur. Lee investigated why such changes occur. 6 Okaz assumed that the data were reliable. Okaz proved that the data were reliable. 7 Illustrate the magnitude of the deceleration. Find the magnitude of the deceleration. 8 The events effected economic development. The events affected economic development. 3.4 Rewrite each sentence using the word in brackets and make any necessary changes to other words. 1 Erikson's theory explains the fluctuations in the figures for this period. (provides) 2 Bevan explored the relationship between family background and political ambition. (exploration) 3 The book describes the life and times of Abraham Lincoln, (description) 4 Cheng's theory emphasises the importance of extensive reading in language acquisition. (puts) 3.5 In academic style, noun phrases can often be used instead of some of the key verbs. ^ Complete each phrase with the appropriate noun. Use a dictionary if necessary. 1 investigate = conduct, carry out an 4 affect = have an......................................on ......................................into/of 5 attempt = make an...................................... to/at 2 illustrate = provide an......................................of 6 classify = make, provide a.......................of 3 analyse = provide, carry out an.......................of Using the tasks in A as a model, prepare some assignment topics for students studying any subject that you are familiar with. Academic Vocabulary in Use 15 Key adjectives For any adjective it is useful to know whether it is typically followed by a specific preposition and whether it has any synonyms (adjectives with a similar meaning) or antonyms (adjectives of opposite meaning). Adjectives and prepositions Here are some extracts from academic texts, with adjectives followed by to or of. Language development is conceived as j relative' to one's own past performance, > or relative to that of others. I Some of the responses to the questionnaire were specific4 to young male respondents. Others were common5 to all the respondents. How can we make science relevant2 environmental policy? Poor communicatio between scientists and politicians is characteristic3 of the situation today. ication ' J the We need to plan technologies which are appropriate6 to the needs of small farmers. Jt was typical of the farmers in the study that ' they had a negative attitude to technology. 1 true to a particular degree when it is being compared with other things 2 connected with what is happening or being discussed 3 (rather formal) typical of 4 only found in 5 belonging to or shared by two or more people or things 6 suitable or right for a particular situation or occasion Adjectives and their opposites Look at this abstract from a dissertation on drug abuse. In most cases you can work out the meanings of the opposites (which follow each numbered adjective), based on the definitions. We cannot discuss drug abuse as an abstract problem without considering concrete examples of abuse and their social consequences. Abuse is rarely a simple2 issue; it usually results from a complex set of circumstances. Both quantitative3 and qualitative research is necessary to gain a full picture of the situation. By combining research methods, we may obtain an accurate picture of the causes and results of abuse, in contrast with the inaccurate assessments which often result from purely quantitative studies. A significant4 amount of fear and prejudice surrounds the notion of abuse, and the media have a role which is also not insignificant in promoting such fears. The dissertation concludes that rough5 estimates of the number of drug addicts need to be made more precise by properly defining addiction. 1 existing as an idea, not as a material object; opposite: existing in a form that can be seen or felt 2 having or made of only one or a few parts 3 based on numbers and statistics; opposite: usually research using non-number-based methods such as interviews, focus groups, etc. 4 important or noticeable 5 fairly correct but not exact or detailed; opposite: exact and accurate Other important, frequent adjectives and typical combinations with nouns There was an apparent1 discrepancy between the two sets of results. We noted a potential2 problem with the experimental design which we had to deal with first. The principal3 cause of the failure was a sudden temperature change. The research used a rigorous4 methodology which had been tested on many occasions. 1 seeming to exist or be true 2 possible when the necessary conditions exist 3 first in order of importance 4 careful to look at or consider every part of something to make certain it is correct Remember to say typical of, NOT typical for. Learn adjectives with the prepositions that often follow them, as in A. 16 Academic Vocabulary in Use Exercises 4.1 Look at A. Correct the preposition errors in these sentences. 1 A lengthy discussion of the advantages of solar power is not relevant with an essay that required you to focus on wind turbines. 2 It is typical to the disease for it to start with an itchy rash. 3 This methodology is not appropriate about the kind of research you are planning. 4 The use of original metaphors is characteristic from the writer's style. 5 Relative with previous attempts to explain the phenomenon, this interpretation is quite persuasive. 6 The dark hair and eyes are common for all people from the region. 4.2 Rewrite each sentence using the opposite of the adjective in italics. 1 Karlsson checked the figures and agreed with me that they were accurate. 2 The solution to the problem is a simple one. 3 Make rough calculations before you begin to write up your results. 4 The army played a significant role in events. 5 Hernandez prefers to discuss ideas in abstract terms. 4.3 Match the adjective on the left with the noun it often combines with on the right. 1 apparent methodology 2 rigorous problem 3 principal discrepancy 4 potential cause 4.4 Now use one of the combinations from 4.3 to complete these sentences. 1 There is an......................................in your figures. 2 Management's refusal to listen to the workers' demands was the......................................of the riots. 3 Lamaque devised a......................................which has since been used successfully by many other researchers in the field. 4 We spotted a......................................with our procedure and so we changed it in two areas. 4.5 Choose the best adjective from the box to complete these sentences. qualitative complex potential rigorous specific 1 The plant is difficult to grow and needs very......................................conditions to survive. 2 His tutor was critical of his work for not being.....................................enough. 3 In the past the northern tribes looked on the tribes of the south as ....................................enemies. 4 We chose a....................................approach to our research and interviewed individuals personally. 5 A......................................set of circumstances led to a civil war in 1897. When you come across any of the key adjectives from this unit in your reading, note it down in a phrase so you build up a set of useful phrases using the adjective. Academic Vocabulary in Use 17 Key adverbs This unit deals with just some of the adverbs that are particularly frequent in an academic context. You will find more in other units throughout this book. Adverbs that compare adverb meaning example comparatively/ relatively in comparison with something else Our sample was relatively/ comparatively small. especially/particularly more than usual The process was not especially/ particularly difficult specially more than usual (spoken English only) for a specific purpose The exam was specially hard this year. We used specially designed equipment. somewhat (opposite: considerably) (slightly formal) a little, slightly When we tested younger boys, we obtained somewhat/considerably different results. primarily mainly Amir is primarily interested in bio-physics. mostly/largely almost completely (but not totally so) The research was largely/mostly successful. directly (opposite: indirectly) without anything else being involved The illness is (in)directly linked to poor housing. Adverbs that relate to numbers or time There are approximately 20 varieties of bird in this species, [roughly, about] There are precisely 48 different managerial posts in the company, [exactly] Interviewees frequently misunderstood one of the questions, [often] We eventually obtained the results we were hoping for. [in the end, after some time] Ultimately we plan to repeat the experiment, [finally, after other things have been completed] Adverbs that relate to how things are stated Hall's latest article essentially1 differs from his earlier work in that it is explicitly2 critical of the government. Generally3, his disapproval of their policies was only conveyed implicitly4 in his previous writing, but here he specifically condemns their handling of a number of issues. 1 referring to its main characteristics; also basically 2 openly 4 not directly, suggested or implied rather than stated Adverbs that restrict or limit usually, also on the whole merely = exactly and nothing more: The medication will merely make the symptoms bearable; it will not cure the disease. simply Note that simply can have different meanings. To put it simply, the risks of this approach would seem to outweigh its advantages, [plainly] The book presents difficult ideas simply, in a way appropriate for the layman, [easily; someone who isn't a specialist in the field] The exam results were simply dreadful, [absolutely, without doubt] hardly ever = almost never: The tribe has hardly ever had contact with the outside world. Eventually means 'in the end'. It does not mean 'perhaps/possibly'. We will perhapslpossibly (NOT eventually) discover life on other planets in the future. Eventually [in the end], we were able to interview all 20 children involved in the test 18 Academic Vocabulary in Use Exercises 5. I Look at A and B. Explain the difference between the sentences in each pair. 1 Heinrich's experiments were mostly successful. Heinrich's experiments were most successful. 2 The results were somewhat surprising given the circumstances. The results were especially surprising given the circumstances. 3 First-year students are directly affected by the new rules relating to tuition fees. First-year students are particularly affected by the new rules relating to tuition fees. 4 The study is primarily concerned with urban alienation. The study is ultimately concerned with urban alienation. 5 The team eventually obtained unpredicted results. The team frequently obtained unpredicted results. 5.2 Choose the more appropriate adverb from the options. What you are saying is essentially I merely true. To put it basically I simply, there is specially I basically no significant difference between the two writers' theories. However, one of them writes in a simply / precisely dreadful style while the other has eventually I possibly a more impressive style than any other contemporary scientist. 5.3 Change the sentences using adverbs which mean the opposite of the underlined ones. 1 There were roughly 350 people living in the village in 1958. 2 Parents seldom complained that the school authorities failed to inform them of changes. 3 We investigated the problem and initially found some small errors in the calculations. 4 The temperature was exactly half a degree lower than the average. 5 Singh (1998) is explicitly critical of existing theories of economic growth. 6 Soil erosion is specifically caused by water or wind. 7 Senior citizens almost always use the internet to communicate with one another. 8 The disease is directly linked to environmental factors. 5.4 Underline the adverbs in these texts. Then answer the questions. Marine conservationists are currently attempting to save the world's coral reefs. One plan is to literally glue the damaged reefs back together, using coral artificially raised in underwater labs. Reefs are increasingly under attack from human activity as well as from events occurring naturally, such as hurricanes and tsunamis. A recent UN report warns that 30% of the world's coral reefs have been completely destroyed or are severely damaged. Scientists have recently discovered that ants can remember how many steps they have taken. By carefully shortening or lengthening the legs of ants, the team observed that short-legged ants apparently became lost and could not easily find their way home to the nest. Similarly, ants with longer legs typically travelled 50% further than they needed to and were also temporarily unable to find the nest. It seems ants can definitely count their steps. 1 Which adverb means 'in the same way'? 2 Find two pairs of adverbs that mean the opposite of each other. 3 Which adverb means the opposite of 'a long time ago'? 4 Which adverb means 'more and more'? 5 Which adverb could be substituted by seriously"? 6 Which adverb means 'for a limited time'? Find an article of interest to you in your discipline and underline all the key adverbs.Then check that you understand their meaning. Academic Vocabulary in Use 19 Phrasal verbs in academic English Although phrasal verbs occur most frequently in more informal spoken and written English, they are also not uncommon in an academic context. You will hear them used in lectures and will read them in serious journals. From this unit only go/look back over and work out are not appropriate for a formal written assignment. Phrasal verbs and one-word synonyms Phrasal verbs often have one-word synonyms. These are usually of Latin origin and sound more formal than their phrasal verb equivalent but both are appropriate when writing or talking about academic subjects. Vary your language by using both. phrasal verb synonym example put forward (an idea/view/opinion/ theory/plan) present In her latest article Kaufmann puts forward a theory which is likely to prove controversial. carry out (an experiment / research) conduct 1 intend to carry out a series of experiments. make up constitute Children under the age of 15 make up nearly half of the country's population. be made up of consist of Parliament is made up of two houses. point out observe Grenne points out that the increase in life expectancy has led to some economic problems. point up highlight The study points up the weaknesses in the current school system. set out (to do something) aim In his article Losanov sets out to prove that... set out describe The document sets out the terms of the treaty. go into discuss In this book Sergeant goes into the causes of the Civil War in some depth. go/look back over revise, review * Please go/look back over this term's notes. go through check Go through your calculations carefully. * Revise is the BrE synonym and review the AmE synonym. (Revise in AmE only means to edit or change something to make it better; review is not used in BrE in the context of preparing for a test as focused on here.) Carrying out research | —— ■ — — ■ After completing her first degree in zoology Meena went on to1 apply to graduate school. She wanted to work on2 animal behaviour at a well-known institute in New Zealand. She set up3 a series of experiments investigating how bees communicate. She has noticed some curious behaviour patterns but has not yet worked out4 why her bees behave as they do. What she has observed seems to go against5 current theories of bee behaviour. When she has completed all her research she will have to write it all up6. 1 do something after doing something else 2 study, work in the field of 3 prepared, arranged 4 come to a conclusion about s not be in agreement with 6 (of an important document) write in a final form Consult a good dictionary when you use phrasal verbs in your writing. For example, a good dictionary tells you when the object can be used before the particle (e.g. write your results up) and when it cannot (e.g. this goes against current theories). Academic Vocabulary in Use Exercises 6.1 Rewrite the sentences replacing the underlined word in each sentence with a phrasal verb from A. Note that both versions of each sentence are equally appropriate. 1 We conducted a series of experiments to test out our hypothesis. 2 Before the test you should revise Chapters 7 and 8 of your textbooks. 3 In his article on the American Civil War Kingston discusses the reasons why the situation developed in the way it did. 4 Cole presents some fascinating theories on the development of language in his latest book. 5 The psychologist observed that it was very unusual for a young child to behave in this way. 6 Please check your work again carefully before handing it in. 7 In this article Simpson aims to prove that the Chinese reached America long before the Vikings. 8 Women now constitute over half the student population in most universities in this country. 6.2 Fill in the missing words in this paragraph. As part of my MA I've been doing some research on language acquisition. I've been working (1)...................................how young children learn their mother tongue. I've been carrying (2)......................................some experiments to see how much reading to young children affects their language development. I've had a great supervisor who has helped me set (3) ............................... my experiments and she's also pointed (4) lots of interesting things in my data that I hadn't noticed myself. I'm busy writing my work (5)...................................... now and I think 1 should be able to put (6) ....................... some useful ideas. It's been really fascinating and I hope I may be able to go (7) to do a doctorate in the same field although I certainly never set (8) to do a PhD. 6.3 Match the beginning of each sentence with the most appropriate ending. 1 Feudal society was made forward a convincing theory with regard to this question. 2 Carlson was the first to put up the flaws in the school's testing methods. 3 Her results appear to go out the solution to the algebra problem. 4 The investigation pointed out a lot of basic information about all the world's 5 It took him a long time to work countries. 6 The geography book sets against what she had found in her earlier studies. up of clearly defined classes of people. 6.4 Answer these questions. 1 What sort of things might a scientist carry out? 2 If you want to study something in more depth, what might you go on to do after getting a first degree? 3 What do postgraduate students typically have to write up at the end of their studies? 4 What sort of things do good students regularly look back over? 5 What sorts of things do scholars typically put forward in their lectures or articles? 6 Why is it sensible to go through any maths calculations that you had to make as part of a research study before you draw any conclusions? Academic Vocabulary in Use 21 Key quantifying expressions Quantifying expressions are important in academic English as it is often necessary to comment on figures or trends. You will find more useful language for talking about numbers in Units 25 and 26 and in Reference 2, which focuses on measurement. Number and amount Learners of English often choose the wrong noun relating to quantity. For example, you say a great (not large) deal (informal) or a large/great amount of an uncountable noun such as money, interest or influence. However, you say a large number of a plural noun such as articles, books or words. Both a number and an amount can be described as small, considerable, substantial, significant, enormous, total, surprising, excessive [too much/many], fair [quite a lot] and reasonable [acceptable]. Other nouns relating to quantity The size of our survey was relatively small-scale. We sent out 2,500 questionnaires in total1. Although a couple2 of people did not respond, the bulk3 of those sent questionnaires have completed them. The survey shows that, as a whole4, the population is becoming more aware of the importance of recycling. Only one of5 our spondents said that he recycled less than he used to. respc 1 in all 2 two or three, a few 3 the majority 4 considered as a group rather than individually 5 notice how respondents is in the plural; it is a common error to write a singular noun after one of... (respondents/surveys/conclusions, etc.) Comparing numbers and quantities expression example comment exceeding Results exceeding 5 cm were eliminated from the survey. (formal) means higher than in excess of People who drive in excess of the speed limit will be fined. means over, used mainly in official or legal writing fewer and fewer / less and less Fewer and fewer people are staying in the same job throughout their lives.Young people are becoming less and less interested in politics. a steadily declining/decreasing number of, decreasingly more and more There is more and more interest in the topic. People are becoming more and more aware of the environment. a steadily increasing amount of, increasingly more or less The experiment was more or less a success. (slightly informal) means mostly or approximately no fewer than No fewer than 200 people responded. used to suggest the number was unexpectedly large Note the significant difference between few and a few and between little and a little. Few [Not many] people enjoy X's music. A few [Some] people enjoy it. We had little [not much] response to our survey. We had a little [some] response to our survey. In other words, few/little has a more negative tone than a few / a little. 22 Academic Vocabulary in Use Exercises 7.1 Complete the sentences using the correct forms of the words in italics. 1 In a......................................number of cases, there was no reaction at all to the drug, surprise 2 The analysis demanded an......................................amount of computer time, exceed 3 ......................................numbers of birds inhabit the lake during the winter, consider 4 The course requires a......................................amount of prior knowledge of computers, reason 5 The survey took a......................................amount of research time and costs were high, substance 6 The two dams can hold in.....................................of two cubic kilometres of water, exceed 7 In......................................, 12 areas of the Southern Indian Ocean are now closed to deep-sea fishing, totality 8 Groups......................................four people were considered too large for the experiment, exceed 9 No......................................than 2,000 new computer viruses are created every year, few 10 In a......................................number of cases, surface damage was noticed, signify 7.2 The sentences below are typical of spoken English. Replace the underlined words to make them sound more appropriate for a written assignment. 1 The bulk of our work is concerned with carbon emissions. 2 We have noticed that fewer and fewer students are joining the course. 3 Our team spent a fair amount of time getting funding for the research. 4 In a couple of cases, we could not find any reason for the outbreak. 5 We spent a great deal of time on the project. 6 As you repeat the experiment, use less and less water each time. 7.3 Read the text and answer the questions. For some years now, scientists have been using a powerful new machine to recreate the conditions that existed at the birth of the universe. The machine generates a massive number of hot, dense, bursts of matter and energy, simulating what happened in the first few microseconds of the beginning of the universe. After no more than ten microseconds, the particles of matter joined together, like water freezing into ice, forming the origin of more or less everything we see in the universe today. 1 Which expression explains how long scientists have been using this machine? 2 Which expression tells us how many bursts of matter and energy the machine generates? 3 Which time period does the machine simulate? 4 Which expression states how long it was before the particles of matter joined together? 5 Which expression in the last sentence means approximately? 7.4 Rewrite the paragraph using the opposites of the underlined words or expressions. There have been a small number of studies investigating the impact of email on interpersonal communications. None of the studies has been large-scale but they suggest some interesting trends in patterns of email use. From one of the older studies it seems that more and more people send in excess of 50 emails daily. Moreover, it appears that a substantial number of senior citizens use email a lot more frequently than younger people do. Find five quantifying expressions from one of your textbooks and write your own sentences using them. Academic Vocabulary in Use 23 Words with several meanings Set Many words in English have more than one meaning. The word set, for example, is one word with a particularly large number of distinctly different meanings. As our focus is academic English, some key uses of set are illustrated by these examples. a) Set the instruments to zero, [get something ready so it can be operated] b) I would like to set some ground rules for the course, [establish] c) The decision set a number of changes in motion, [caused to be in a stated condition] d) We must set a time for our next meeting, [arrange] e) Concrete sets as it cools, [becomes solid] f) The students entered the room and immediately set to work, [started work] g) The condition is associated with a particular set of symptoms, [group] h) We have a number of set books to study in our literature class, [that must be studied] More academic meanings for familiar words Here are some more words which in an academic context may have a different meaning from those you are familiar with from your knowledge of general English. word academic meaning(s) example accommodate (verb) change to allow something to fit in He had to adapt his theory to accommodate new information. contract (verb) shorten, become smaller As the metal cools it contracts. occur (verb) exist Some valuable minerals occur naturally in these rocks. reference (noun) author or book mentioned in a piece of writing to show where information was found You must provide a list of references at the end of your assignment revolution (noun) complete turn (e.g. of a wheel) Time is measured by the revolution of the earth around the sun. structure (noun) way in which parts of a system or object are organised or arranged The structure of this element is particularly complex. Words with several different academic meanings Many academic words have specific meanings according to their discipline. Channel, for example, has specific meanings in electronics, linguistics, biology, physics and geography. So you will, of course, need a specialist dictionary for your own subject. Other words, e.g. issue and point have several generally important academic meanings. The writer takes issue with Kwame's interpretation, [raises arguments against] In your essay you should address a number of key issues, [topics] Have you seen the latest issue of the Malaysian Medical Journal} [edition] Jackson raises some interesting points in his article, [opinions, ideas, information] The writer takes a long time to get to the point, [most significant part] If you come across a word that you think you know but it does not seem to make sense in that context, check to see whether it has another distinct meaning. If so, write it down with both (or all) its meanings in your vocabulary notebook. 24 Academic Vocabulary in Use Exercises 8.1 Which meaning given in A does set have in these examples? 1 If you don't set to work immediately you won't finish the task by the end of term. 2 Before we start I'd like everyone to set their watches to precisely the same time. 3 Professors will set a date for the submission of assignments relating to their own courses. 4 We expected the mixture to set quickly but it had not hardened by the morning. 5 Before leaving the area, the retreating army set the farm buildings on fire. 6 The engine's performance has set a new fuel consumption record. 7 During the first semester, music students have to study a number of set pieces. 8 There are a whole set of issues that need to be discussed. 8.2 Choose a word from B to complete each sentence. Change the form if necessary. 1 When you are doing research it is sensible to keep good records of all your...................................... as it can be difficult to locate sources later. 2 This medical condition is most likely to......................................in fair-skinned people. 3 In first gear the engine makes ten......................................for every......................................of the wheels. 4 Wealth, the theme of the anthology, is general enough to......................................a wide variety of approaches. 5 The.................................of society in Ancient Rome can be said to resemble that of the modern USA. 6 They carried out an experiment to check whether the gold......................................or expanded under a range of different conditions. 8.3 Which word could fit in each of these sets of phrases? 1 discuss the following...................................... 3 take......................................with underline the key...................................... the latest......................................of the New Scientist make some thoughtful...................................... a controversial...................................... 2 to......................................a precedent 4 a......................................of communication a......................................of exercises the English...................................... a......................................book to......................................one's energies into 8.4 Read this text about some new medical software. For each underlined word give the meaning in the text and one other meaning. Use a dictionary to help you if necessary. A simulator showing how outbreaks of infection might spread around the world would be of great assistance in the struggle to contain such diseases. Researchers at the World Health Organization maintain that to effectively confront emerging infectious diseases, they need a significant amount of computing power. A global epidemic simulator would mimic climate simulators which monitor the movement of weather systems. It would record where disease outbreaks occur, where they are heading and, crucially, would allow scientists to test out virtual mitigation measures to see which might work best on the ground. 8.5 Jokes are often based on words having several meanings. Explain this joke. A neutron goes into a bar, orders a drink and asks how much it will be. The barman replies: Tor you, sir, no charge.' Look at a textbook on an academic subject of special interest to you. Look for some of the words in this unit and decide which meaning they have in your text. Academic Vocabulary in Use 25 Metaphors and idioms A metaphor is a way of using language which describes something by indirectly comparing it to something else with similar characteristics. For example, you might say an academic 'attacks' or 'demolishes' someone's theory or argument, just as an army can attack an enemy or workers can demolish a building. If a metaphor is used so often that the original force of the comparison is lost then it may be called an idiom. For example, people often use the idiom 'I'm snowed under with work at the moment'. Originally this was a metaphor based on the idea of a great deal of work having the characteristics of 'snow' (deep, overwhelming everything else and making movement difficult). However, this expression has been used so frequently that it no longer gives people a mental picture of snow. Metaphors and idioms referring to light and darkness The present experimental data may shed (new) light on1 the formation of the planets. Views on depression have changed in (the) light of2 recent studies of the brain. Novelists, poets and essayists often use history to illuminate3 their understanding of human behaviour. The book provides an illuminating discussion of how languages change. Animal models can be used to elucidate4 basic principles of the developmental origins of adult diseases. The report revealed the glarings discrepancy between patients' needs and what the health service can offer them, and highlighted6 the need for a new approach. The report shines a light on7 the questions surrounding child care and provides crucial data. Substance abuse continues to destroy individuals and communities, and researchers remain in the dark8 about what can ensure successful recovery from addiction. The book dealt with economic policy in the shadow of9 the Civil War of 1994-1999. 1 provide an explanation for it which makes it easier to understand. We can also say cast or throw light on 2 because of 3 show more clearly something that is difficult to understand 4 explain or make clear (from the Latin lucidus meaning 'clear') s something bad that is very obvious (to glare means to shine too brightly) 6 emphasised something important 7 focuses on 8 continue in a state of not knowing something 9 in a situation where something bad has happened or is happening Metaphors and idioms referring to war and conflict Look at these extracts from lectures where the speakers use such metaphors and idioms. 'Critics opposed to D.H. Lawrence attacked his novels on various grounds, both trivial and important. But despite the apparent diversity of opinion, Lawrence's critics were united on what they saw as several serious problems.' 'It's useful at the present time to look at Japan's experience in the battle against air pollution, and it's a battle no nation can afford to lose.' 'In the last two poems we see the poet becoming increasingly detached from the material world, retreating' more into his own mind than before.' 'Lawsuits can certainly affect the value of a company, and firms need strategies to combat the onslaught2 of lawsuits.' 'Parents and teachers need to maintain a united front3 on the question of bad conduct at school.' 'In the last ten years or so, children have been bombarded with4 increasing amounts of violence in the media.' 1 going back 2 a very powerful attack 3 remain united in their opinions and agree on how to act 4 forced to experience, subjected to Academic Vocabulary in Use Exercises 9.1 Choose a word from the box to complete each sentence. 9.2 9.3 elucidate remained glaring shadow highlights shed illuminate shine light 1 The results of the investigation......................................a light on the pressures of the global economy on farmers in developing countries. 2 Until recently, scientists have......................................in the dark as to the causes of the disease, but a recent breakthrough promises to......................................new light on the problem. 3 Our whole notion of time and space has changed in the......................................of recent developments in physics. 4 These communities have lived for decades in the......................................of poverty and social deprivation. 5 The collapse of the bridge......................................the need for a more rigorous analysis of the effects of constant traffic movements. 6 The team carried out a series of experiments in an attempt to.....................................the mysterious processes at work in the organism. 7 The article helps to ....:.................................for the ordinary reader some of the more difficult references in Shakespeare's plays. 8 The professor found some......................................errors in one student's calculations. Rewrite these sentences using metaphors of conflict instead of the underlined words. 1 Scientists who don't agree with this theory have recently attacked its basic assumptions. 2 Governments need to remain in complete agreement on the issue of economic migrants. 3 Nowadays, we get a huge number of advertisements every time we watch TV or open a magazine. 4 G. J. Frankin has recently moved away from the view that economic processes cannot be altered, and is now moving towards a different approach. 5 The efforts against crime will fail without police and community cooperation. 6 The protests were a response to the devastating sudden large number of trade restrictions on small producers. Look at this text and underline key words and phrases which construct the main metaphor: 'the human brain is a computer'. Shutting down Alzheimer's The human brain is a remarkably complex organic computer, taking in a wide variety of sensory experiences, processing and storing this information, and recalling and integrating selected bits at the right moments. The destruction caused by Alzheimer's disease has been likened to the erasure of a hard drive, beginning with the most recent files and working backward. As the illness progresses, old as well as new memories gradually disappear until even loved ones are no longer recognized. Unfortunately, the computer analogy breaks down: one cannot simply reboot the human brain and reload the files and programs. The problem is that Alzheimer's does not only erase information; it destroys the very hardware of the brain, which is composed of more than 100 billion nerve cells (neurons], with 100 trillion connections among them. Look at some of the textbooks you use. Can you find any examples of metaphors or idioms there relating to light and darkness or war and conflict? Academic Vocabulary in Use 27 I 0 Nouns and the words they combine with Nouns often combine with specific verbs, for example carry out research, pay attention, or with specific adjectives, for example medical research, undivided attention. Adjective + noun noun adjectives that often combine with it example contact useful, valuable, personal, constant, close, frequent, intermittent1 1 made some useful contacts at the conference. debate considerable, heated2, intense, public, animated3 After the lecture there was a heated debate. element [= factor] crucial, decisive, fundamental Timing is a crucial element of the experiment elements [= parts] conflicting, contrasting, constituent4 There are conflicting elements in the artist's work- energy excess, sufficient, nuclear Wind turbines create sufficient energy for the town's needs. phenomenon common, isolated, natural, recent, universal Such anti-social behaviour is a recent phenomenon. results conflicting, (in)conclusive, unforeseen5, preliminary6, encouraging, interim7 Our preliminary results were encouraging. role decisive, challenging, conflicting, influential, key, pivotal8 Student activists played a pivotal role in the riot. sample random, representative A representative sample of the population was surveyed. in ... terms absolute, broad, relative, general, practical, economic People are better off in economic terms. way alternative, efficient, fair, practical, convenient, proper, acceptable It is important to treat your research subjects in a fair way. 1 from time to time 2 strong, often angry 3 lively 4 that combine to make something 5 not expected 6 first 7 temporary 8 important Noun + verb Most of the nouns in the table above are also strongly associated with specific verbs. You can come into contact with someone or something or you can establish, maintain, break off or lose contact. Academics may engage in debate or contribute to a debate. You talk about the debate surrounding an issue. You can combine, differentiate or discern [recognise] the elements of a chemical compound. You consume [use], conserve, generate [create], save or waste energy. Phenomena emerge or occur and students will try to observe, investigate and then explain those phenomena. Academics collect, collate [organise] and publish their results. Sometimes results are questioned or invalidated [shown to be wrong]. Occasionally they are even falsified! Roles may be defined or strengthened. People or factors can play a role or take on a role. You can take or provide or analyse a sample. You can discover, devise [think up], work out or develop a way to do something. i Whenever you notice a noun that seems to be key as far as your own studies are concerned, write it down with the adjectives and verbs it is typically associated with. 28 Academic Vocabulary in Use Exercises 10.1 Answer these questions about the adjective + noun combinations in the table in A. 1 Put these types of contact in order of frequency - frequent, constant, intermittent. 2 Which of these is a representative sample and which is a random sample: a sample chosen by chance, a sample chosen as typical of the population as a whole? 3 Which adjective describes the opposite of a common phenomenon} 4 Would you be pleased if you did some research and got inconclusive results} 5 What adjective other than key can be used with role to give a similar meaning? 6 Which suggests that there is more energy - excess or sufficient energy} 7 Can you name three people who play an influential role in a child's development? 8 If two of the four constituent elements of most language exams are reading and speaking, what are the other two? 10.2 Fill in the gaps in these sentences with a verb from B. Change the form where necessary. 1 I first......................................into contact with Abdul when I started my doctoral research in 1987. 2 The country......................................so much energy that we don't......................................enough to meet all our needs. 3 The space race.....................................an important role in post-war politics. 4 In her research project Diana.....................................the phenomenon of extra-sensory perception but she was not able to come to any significant conclusions. 5 Although Hans's rivals attempted to......................................his results, they met with no success. 6 Green's poetry successfully......................................elements from a number of different traditions. I 0.3 Match the beginning of each sentence with the most appropriate ending. 1 It took the team a long time to devise surrounding the issue of global warming. 2 During the war we had to break a blood sample for analysis. 3 There has been a lot of heated debate the role of project leader. 4 Ian Hartmann was invited to take on to the debate on cloning. 5 Part of my role was to collate off contact with colleagues abroad. 6 The doctor wanted me to provide seems to be emerging. 7 Scientists all over the world contributed the key elements in a graph. 8 A new and unexpected phenomenon a way to solve their problem. 9 Using shading helps to differentiate the results of our experiments. I 0.4 Choose the best word from the box to fill each of the gaps. conflicting crucial define discern engaging heated interim maintaining practical proper publish random taking 1 She obtained her results by......................................a...................................... sample of the population. 2 Before we go any further we must......................................each of our roles more precisely. 3 We must decide what is the......................................way to proceed, in......................................terms. 4 The group succeeded in......................................contact long after they had all left college. 5 My trip to Africa was the......................................element in my decision to work in conservation. 6 Specialists in the field of bio-engineering have been......................................in......................................debate on this issue for some time. 7 I am told that Smythe is about to......................................some......................................results. 8 Professor Powell was able to......................................some......................................elements in different accounts of the incident. Academic Vocabulary in Use 29 I I Adjective and noun combinations This unit focuses on a number of adjective + noun combinations which are particularly frequent in academic contexts. Adjectives suggesting importance adjective comment some of the nouns it frequently goes with important significant can convey the same meaning and both adjectives often go with these nouns aspect, contribution, difference, implications, point, question, reason, element significant can also mean large in size and as such goes with these nouns increase, reduction, number, proportion major the opposite, minor, also often goes with these nouns role, changes, problem, factor, issue, concern, difference, theme, contribution, point enormous/ considerable enormous can mean very large or very important; considerable means large or of noticeable importance (i.e. slightly less strong than enormous) amount, expansion, number, range, diversity, difference, variation, extent, degree, impact, power, influence, significance, interest particular means special interest, attention, significance, importance, concern Note that a feature of academic writing is that it often uses an adjective + noun phrase to suggest importance of some kind instead of just using an adjective, e.g. Marx's contribution is of particular significance instead of Marx's contribution is very significant. Adjectives suggesting frequency Widespread means that something happens in many places or among many people. It often combines with such nouns as belief, acceptance, support, opposition, assumption, use. For example, There is widespread support for government policy in urban areas. Common can mean frequent. With this meaning it often combines with such nouns as experience, practice, use, concern. For example, It is increasingly common practice for UK teenagers to take a gap year before entering university. Note that common can also mean 'shared' and as such it combines with knowledge, ground, feature, interest. For example, There is much common ground between the two writers. Specific means relating to one thing and not to things in general. It often combines with context, information, case, type, form, purpose, characteristics, conditions, example. For example, The reaction occurs only under specific conditions. Other useful adjective and noun combinations Inevitable is often used with words relating to results or changes such as consequence, outcome, collapse, decline, conflict, effect, developments, [unavoidable] Explicit combines with words relating to how things are presented, e.g. reference, statement, comparison, account, mention, [clear and exact, communicated directly] Relevant combines with words relating to evidence of different types, e.g. data, documents, information, details, factors, [connected with what is being discussed] 30 Academic Vocabulary in Use Exercises I I. I Look at these statements about some academics. Complete each sentence with an appropriate adjective or noun. There may be more than one answer. 1 Davison did a considerable......................................of research into earthquake prediction. 2 Rawlinson drew......................................attention to the problem of energy consumption. 3 Werner's work had an enormous......................................on the way we design bridges today. 4 A......................................proportion of Thomaz's work was devoted to international law. Three of her five books were on the subject. 5 Prestyn made only a......................................contribution to modern psychology, but it was an interesting one, nonetheless. 6 Baklov's work has some extremely......................................implications for our work today. I 1.2 Rewrite the sentences using adjectives from the opposite page instead of the words in bold. 1 There is opposition among students in many places to the idea of longer semesters. 2 The destruction of the riverbank will cause a decline which is bound to happen in the numbers of small mammals. 3 School standards are a concern which occurs frequently among parents nowadays. 4 Nowhere in the article does the author make mention in a direct, clear and exact way of the 20 cases which were never resolved. 5 There is very little ground which is shared between the two ways of addressing the problem. 6 The paper is too general and lacks examples which relate only to individual things. 1 1.3 Make sure you know the noun forms of these adjectives. Write them in the table. Use a rij^j dictionary if necessary. adjective noun adjective noun significant important relevant valuable interesting useful frequent broad I 1.4 The sentences below came from lectures. Adapt them for use in an academic article by replacing the phrases in bold. In each case use an adjective from the box combined with a noun from 11.3 to make a phrase like of great interest. huge high enormous great considerable 1 Johnson's work is very relevant for any student of medical engineering. 2 The research will be very valuable to anyone interested in economic planning. 3 It was an event which was terribly important in the history of Latin American politics. 4 Parrich's book is an extremely broad work. 5 Sorlan's book was a very significant work in the development of political theory. 6 This software will be quite useful in the analysis of large amounts of numerical data. 7 The method she outlines is very interesting to anyone investigating sleeplessness. 8 'You know' is an expression which is very frequent in informal spoken English. Academic Vocabulary in Use 3 I Verbs and the words they combine with How verbs combine with other words You should note a number of things about verbs in an academic context, in particular: • any nouns often used with the verb and whether the noun goes before or after the verb, for example, the research/theory is based on, to pose a problem/question/threat • any adverbs often used with the verb, for example, mainly/partly/loosely based • any prepositions following the verb, for example, to base something on something else • if the verb is often used in the passive, for example, be based on, be associated with. verb nouns adverbs examples base (on) research, theory, story, hypothesis mainly, partly loosely The story was loosely based on a true event which occurred in l892.The theory is mainly based on the writer's initial study. associate (with) word, idea, theory, term generally, commonly, invariably A decrease in consumer spending is generally associated with fears of instability.The word is commonly associated with youth culture. discuss idea, problem, issue, question, topic, theme at length, briefly, thoroughly Wilson and Crick (1965) discuss the problem at length. Sim's article discusses the issue thoroughly. establish relationship, connection firmly, clearly, conclusively Geologists have been unable to firmly establish a connection between the two types of fossils. Lopez conclusively establishes a relationship between the two phenomena. examine facts, evidence, effects, aspects briefly, critically, thoroughly We shall now briefly examine the evidence for the existence of dark matter. Our aim is to thoroughly examine the effects of stress. demonstrate existence, need, effects, importance clearly, convincingly The study clearly demonstrates the importance of support for dementia sufferers. Harvey's work convincingly demonstrates the need for a new approach to the problem. identify (with) (often used in passive) causes, factors, issues, properties, needs, approach, origin correctly, clearly, closely This approach is closely identified with the work of H. Crowley during the l950s.The article clearly identifies the factors influencing the decision to go to war. B More verbs in combination with nouns, adverbs and prepositions • pose - This inevitably poses a question concerning the stability of society. Parks poses a challenge to Kahn's theory. • suggest - The most recent results strongly suggest a different interpretation of the situation. The article suggests a new approach to the problem. • list - Here I simply list the main hypotheses/causcs/features/characteristics; they will be examined in detail below. • refer - The book refers frequcntly/specifically/in passing to the 1956 economic crisis. • observe -This is due to the changes/trends/differences we observed earlier. XRemember, we say based on, NOT based in. We discuss a problem I an issue, NOT discuss about a problem I an issue. Note any verb + preposition combinations that differ from those of your first language. 32 Academic Vocabulary in Use Exercises 12.1 Choose the most appropriate adverb for the verb in bold, and add it to the sentence. Note the word order used on the opposite page. 1 Paulson's research demonstrated the need for a new approach to the study of stress, invariably convincingly closely 2 As was observed, there is a strong correlation between house prices and inflation, closely critically earlier 3 In the study of language, 'tense' refers to the coding of time in the form of the verb, specifically strongly briefly 4 Classical liberal economics is identified with the theories of Milton Friedman, thoroughly closely conclusively 5 Chapter 1 discusses the main issues, but they are dealt with in greater detail in Chapter 2. closely simply briefly 6 To date, no research exists that establishes a connection between behaviour, personality traits, and leadership traits. firmly thoroughly critically 7 SENTA is a computer programming language based on Logo, strongly slightly loosely 8 Social research techniques were applied to examine the effects of the policy on the poor, strongly mainly critically 1 2.2 Complete each sentence with a suitable noun. There may be more than one answer. 1 Here we list again the main......................................of the present study and show which have been proven and which have been rejected. 2 The graph enables us to observe recent broad......................................in mortality rates. 3 The researchers concluded that it is still difficult to identify the......................................of the time-related changes in human beings that we call ageing. 4 A seminar was held to discuss the......................................of children's rights in the light of the Convention on the Rights of the Child. 5 Wu demonstrated the......................................for a comprehensive plan in preparation for a pandemic. I 2.3 Complete each sentence with three possible nouns. Use a dictionary if necessary. |0 1 These figures lead me to suggest an alternative (1).............................(2).............................(3)............................. 2 It is clear that these developments pose a new (1).............................(2).............................(3).............................. 3 Before we reach any conclusion, it is important to examine the (1).............................(2)............................ (3).............................• 12.4 Underline useful verb + adverb combinations in this text. The world is facing a looming water crisis. Disputes over allocation have steadily increased in the last decade, and demand has grown rapidly. Water is likely to generate the same degree of controversy in the 21st century as oil did in the 20*. If we take no action now, new conflicts are likely to occur periodically around the world. At the moment, instead of seeking solutions which directly address multiple needs, countries focus a little too narrowly on local issues and typically opt for expensive and inferior solutions. What is needed are decisions which can be quickly implemented and a debate which will seriously consider more than the short term needs of individual states. I 2.5 Use one of the combinations you underlined in 12.4 to complete each sentence. 1 Various measures were introduced last year to......................................the issue of identity theft. 2 The justice system needs to......................................the impact of a prison sentence on offenders. 3 The number of university applications has been......................................over the last 50 years. 4 The article......................................on one angle of the problem rather than taking a broad view. 5 The suggested measures should be......................................to avoid further problems. Academic Vocabulary in Use 33 Prepositional phrases Notice the prepositional phrases in the texts below. A book review The Guide to the Semi-Colon in English was written by Keith Pedant in conjunction with1 a team of researchers at Boardham University. In comparison with2 previous works on the semi-colon, this is a very substantial volume. In addition to the main text there are a number of appendices. These are to some extent3 the most useful parts of the book as, in line with4 modern linguistic practice, they provide a wealth of real data. In spite of5 its potentially dry topic, the book contains many fascinating examples, in the sections dealing with the history of the semi-colon in particular. With the exception of6 the final chapter, this book may be of some interest to the general reader as well as the specialist but on the whole7 is mainly for those who have a professional interest in punctuation marks. 1 working together with 2 same meaning as in contrast to 3 notice also to a greater/lesser/ certain extent 4 following, same meaning as in accordance with 5 despite, not prevented by 6 not including (NB NOT except) 7 generally A talk to a genealogy club Chairperson: Now, at this stage1 in the proceedings it's my pleasure to introduce our speaker tonight, Dr Anna Klein, the country's leading family history specialist. Anna, I'd like to welcome you on behalf of2 all our members. Anna Klein: Thank you. My own interest in the subject came about as a result of discovering some old letters in the attic at home. I found them by chance3. They'd been written by some relatives who'd emigrated to Canada a hundred years or so before and for me, as a ten-year-old then, they were by far4 the most exciting things I had ever read. They were, for the most part5, extremely well-written and, from then on, I was determined to learn as much as I could about my family. In other words6,1 had started out on my genealogical journey. In some ways, I was very lucky. I was able to collect quite a bit of key family information on the basis of the old letters and this enabled me to track down some relations living in Montreal. They, in turn, provided some contacts with Australian cousins and so it continued. In the process, I've learnt a great deal, not only about my own family, but also in terms of7 how to approach tracing one's family. In most respects8 it's been a thoroughly enjoyable adventure though there have been some difficult moments ... 1 now, also at this point 2 representing (NB NOT onthe-part-of) 3 accidentally 4 very much 5 generally 6 to express something differently, often more simply 7 as far as (how to approach ...) was concerned 8 considering most aspects of the experience Note that on the one hand and on the other hand are used to contrast two different ways of looking at an issue. On the one hand flying is much more convenient than going by train, but on the other hand, train travel is often much more interesting. 34 AcademicVocabulary in Use Exercises 13.1 Complete the prepositional phrases as used in these press announcements 5 Professor Soltero said that,.............................line .............................government guidelines, the researchers had consulted local people. A spokesperson for the drug company said that, ..........................................................stage, it is too early to make strong claims about the drug. H .1 0 f i iii .............................the exception.............................one study in 1986, no major research had been carried out till now, Dr Peters stated. Dr Leiman said that while.............................the ...........................hand the government wanted to encourage research,............................the............................. hand they were reducing funding for universities. Professor Karpal said that, .......the basis .............................her studies so far, she was optimistic that a cure for the disease would be found. Lauren Charles said that,.......................................................... whole, social conditions had improved since the report, especially.............................terms.............................jobs and housing for the poorer sectors. \ 4 .......addition........ a new building on the campus, the team will receive a very generous grant to conduct their research. The Professor said that he was delighted to accept the award.............................behalf.............................the whole university. 13.2 Match the beginning of each sentence with the most appropriate ending. 1 The conclusions are fair in 2 Dr Carr's team got the grant, in 3 We had little money to spare; in 4 We need people's personal data, in 5 We made an important discovery; in 6 This latest paper is quite short in 7 The Indian study was carried out in some ways it was sheer luck, conjunction with an American project, comparison with other articles in the series, spite of being the smallest team to apply, most respects, though some are questionable, other words, we were underfunded, particular their parents' history of illnesses. 13.3 Read this paragraph about the discovery of dinosaurs. In each sentence there is one error in the use of a prepositional phrase. Correct each error. A bone discovered on chance in the 17th century was the beginning of the search for dinosaurs. From then in, scientists and the public have been fascinated by these creatures. In accordance to beliefs at that time, the initial discovery was thought to be the bone of a human giant. However, in 1824, a scientist, William Buckland, calculated that the bone belonged to a 12-metre, flesh-eating reptile and named it Megalosaurus, on the process giving us the first of the wonderful list of exotic names for dinosaurs. The 17th century discovery had, on turn, led to a series of further finds around that time. All these at a greater or lesser extent confirmed Buckland's theories. For far the biggest dinosaur discovered to date was probably over 40 metres long. To the most part, dinosaurs ranged from the size of a chicken to that of a giraffe. At most respects, what we know about their habits is still very limited. What we do know is at least on some extent based on pure speculation. Use a dictionary to find an example sentence using each of these phrases: on the one hond, on the other hond, on behalf of, with the exception of, except. Write them out and then add one more sentence for each one relating to your own academic discipline. Academic Vocabulary in Use 35 I 4 Verbs and prepositions Verbs with on - sentences from academic articles Chapter 1 of Huang's book focuses on violent human behaviour. Sura's article draws on data gathered over a period of ten years, [uses in support of his/her case] The introduction to the book comments briefly on a case study carried out in Brazil. In this section I concentrate on the economic aspects of immigration. The book is based on a number of studies carried out during the 1990s, [often used in passive] The method used by Scanlon relies on / rests on* two basic principles. [*(formal) is based on] Verbs with to - teachers talk to students We assigned1 the tasks randomly to the experimental group and the control group to see how the subjects would react to the different problems OK, let's turn to the more difficult cases that I mentioned earlier. How should a doctor respond to a patient who doesn't consent to treatment when it seems to be essential? Malaria poses a major health risk to people who are exposed to infection where malaria is common. In 1997, 13% of deaths among children were attributed >2 malaria in one area in Zaire. When you're planning a questionnaire, you shoul always attend to3 design issues such as the number of questions and how clear they are. We can't really say that an increase in inflation of two per cent amounts to4 an economic crisis, and I refer here to some recent stories in the media which are highly exaggerated and which can be traced to5 a deep misunderstanding of how inflation operates. ' give a particular job or piece of work to someone 2 say or think that something is the result of something (often used in passive) 3 deal with, give one's attention to 4 be the same as something, or have the same effect as something 5 discover the origin of something by examining how it has developed (often used in passive) Other prepositions verbs examples with associate, provide, couple, equip Note: In the active voice, as in the first example, this group of verbs follows the pattern verb + object + preposition + complement Note also that these verbs are often used in the passive, as in the second example. We try to equip our laboratories with the latest technology. Heart disease is often associated with unhealthy life styles. from depart, benefit, emerge, exclude In this book, Heme departs from his earlier theory, [takes a different view] Some of the data were excluded from the final analysis. of write, speak, convince, dispose Abuka writes/speaks of the early years of industrial development [both are rather formal] We must convince people of the need for water conservation. for account, search, call, argue Lung cancer accounted for 20% of deaths in men. [formed the total of] Hopper (1987) argues for a new approach to English grammar, [opposite: argue against] X The verbs emphasise and stress are used without any preposition (NOT en). The study emphasises/stresses the need for more controlled experiments to back up the conclusions. Divide is followed by into (NOT di'Wdc in). The subjects were divided into three groups. 36 AcademicVocabulary in Use Exercises 14.1 Put the words in the right order to make sentences. Use the punctuation to help you. 1 period. / focuses / the changes / The article / on / the / the post-war / economy / US / in / in 2 commented / student's / inconsistencies / a / The professor / of / in the / essay. / on / number 3 conducted / The / is / last / based / a series / theory / of / five / on / years. / over the / experiments 4 on / assistants. / The / research / relies / work / conducted by / professor's / experiments / his 5 is / are / very / your / your / studies / important / concentrate / to / over. / on / until / It / exams 6 was / The / draw / some / to / primary / on / only recently / become / have / available. / writer / sources / which / able 14.2 Put these verbs in the right box. account argue assign associate attribute benefit call consent convince depart dispose equip exclude provide react refer search write for from of to with I 4.3 Now choose one of the word + preposition combinations from 14.2 to complete each sentence. Change the form of the verb if necessary. 1 The lecturer.....................................us......................................a number of very good writers on the subject. 2 Traffic accidents............................................................................most hospital admissions at the weekend. 3 The poets John Keats and Lord Byron are closely........................................................................... the English Romantic Movement. 4 Remember to......................................carefully..................................... all waste material. 5 Most people believe that they would ........................enormously....................................having more job security. 6 My parents tried to......................................me......................................the advantages of studying abroad. 7 I have been............................................................................an article on this topic for ages. 8 Our experiments......................................us......................................the data we needed to prove our hypothesis. 9 The head of department............................................................................the lecturer's request for leave of absence. 10 Mary Raskova......................................very movingly..........................her experiences in Rwanda. I 4.4 Correct the sentences. All of them have errors connected with prepositions. 1 The course leader divided her students in five groups. 2 They had to trace everyone who had been exposed for the infection. 3 At the moment we have too few nurses attending at too many patients. 4 Excellent teaching coupled for first-class research have made this a successful college. 5 The country emerged off the crisis as a much stronger power. 6 Joe got an interest in politics from his uncle who often spoke over his days as a senator. 7 The government called to an investigation into the explosion at the nuclear reactor. 8 In your speech don't forget to emphasise on the advantages of studying here. Academic Vocabulary in Use 37 I 5 Nouns and prepositions Groups of related nouns sharing prepositions Sometimes groups of nouns with related meanings share the same prepositions. nouns preposiüon(s) example book, article, essay, lecture, dissertation, project, assignment about, on In 1978, Da Silva published a book about1 the history of emigration. She wrote a dissertation on2 teenage slang in New York. research (see also B), investigation, inquiry into Kelly (1969) conducted an investigation into the origins of international terrorism. analysis, examination, exploration (see also B), study of The article offers an analysis of the potential impact of the H5N1 Avian Flu virus. problem, difficulty of, with He gave a lecture on the problem of global warming. One difficulty with this approach is that a set of results may allow different interpretations. reason, motivation, rationale (see also B) for Economists have recently questioned the rationale for government spending. 1 and 2 about tends to be used for more general subjects; on is frequently used for more specific, detailed works, although both may be found in both uses See also the notes on prepositions after nouns in Unit 44. Nouns commonly associated with particular prepositions You can also learn the nouns which most frequently come before a particular preposition. Some of these are in A above. The following examples are all titles of academic articles. nouns preposition example look, attempt, point, age at An attempt at integration of economic and psychological theories of consumption changes, differences, increase, decrease in Gender differences in risk-taking in financial decisionmaking insight, inquiry, research, investigation into An investigation into sleep characteristics of children with autism work, research, influence, emphasis, effect on Genetic influence on smoking - a study of male twins basis, idea, part, lack, exploration, means of A computerised clinical decision support system as a means of implementing depression guidelines need, reason, basis, case, preference for Assessing organisational culture: the case for multiple methods relation, approach, response, attention to Communicating with strangers: an approach to intercultural communication attitude, tendency, move, progress to/towards Progress towards sustainable regional development principle, rationale, assumptions, logic behind Questioning the assumptions behind art criticism relationship, difference, distinction between The relationship between educational technology and student achievement in mathematics 38 Academic Vocabulary in Use Exercises I 5.1 Fill in the missing prepositions. In questions 4 and 5, more than one answer is possible. 1 One difficulty......................................the class questionnaire was that some students had already left the course and could not be contacted. 2 She wrote a dissertation......................................wild flower conservation in Finland in the 1990s. 3 The book is an exploration......................................the origins of the economic crisis of 1997. 4 The rationale......................................the present research is the need to better understand the process of agreement in international law. 5 Research......................................spoken language has been considerably assisted in recent years by the availability of computerised databases or 'corpora'. 6 Prippen's (1984) book was an inquiry......................................the foundations of nationalism. 7 What is Kazuo Matsui's book......................................? Have you read it? 8 He did a study......................................the problem......................................side-impact automobile collisions. I 5.2 Correct the mistakes in the use of prepositions in these sentences. There may be more than one mistake per sentence. 1 Her dissertation produced some interesting insights to how young children develop a visual sense of the world and the age in which development is most noticeable. 2 The reason of the unwillingness of the people involved in the demonstration to be interviewed was fear of being arrested later. 3 Hierstat's approach at the analysis of solar phenomena is different from that of Donewski. He questioned the assumptions under much of the previous research. 4 Changes of the rate of growth of the cells were observed over time. 5 A lack in funding led to the cancellation of the project, and social scientists blamed the negative attitude of the government on social science research. 6 Jawil's article puts great emphasis into the need of more research and argues the case of greater attention on the causes of poverty rather than the symptoms. I 5.3 Using a dictionary if necessary, match each noun with the preposition that usually follows it. Nouns: attitude difference effect emphasis insight preference principle rationale reason relationship tendency Prepositions: behind between for into on to/towards I 5.4 Underline typical academic noun + preposition combinations like those on the opposite page. The possible ecological effects of climate change are often in the news, as is the matter of whether the potential impact can be predicted. New work on a migratory1 bird, the pied flycatcher, takes things a stage further by showing how a climate-related population decline was actually caused. Timing is key. Over the past 17 years flycatchers declined strongly in areas where caterpillar2 numbers (food for the nestlings3) peak early, but in areas with a late food peak there was no decline. The young birds arrive too late in places where caterpillars have already responded to early warmth. Mistiming like this is probably a common consequence of climate change, and may be a major factor in the decline of many long-distance migratory bird species. ' which travels to a different place, usually when the season changes 2 small, long animal with many legs which develops into a butterfly 3 young birds Academic Vocabulary in Use 39 I 6 Fixed expressions If we look at a corpus of academic texts, we see that certain chunks of language occur very frequently in spoken and written contexts. This unit looks at some of the most useful ones. Number, quantity, degree Look at these comments written by a college teacher on assignments handed in by her students. Note the expressions in bold. A good paper, it's clear you've speiA-t a great deal of time researching the subject ain,d you quote a wide ravage of sources. \ sorue good points here but it's not clear to what extent you're aware of all the Issues | involved, global trade affects nations in a. variety of ways. j qrade: c 3 / thinte you've K-usunderstood the topic to soi^te extent, you've written in excess of' 3,000 words on areas that are not relevant. Let's talfe. more Jworas on ' entirely Oracle: f Generalising and specifying In this class discussion, the students make fairly general statements, while the teacher tries to make the discussion more specific. Marsha: Well, I think on the whole parents should take more responsibility for their kids. Teacher: Yes, with respect to1 home life, yes, but in the case of violence, surely the wider community is involved, isn't it? I mean, for the purposes of our discussions about social stability, everyone's involved, aren't they? Marsha: Yes, but in general I don't think people want to get involved in violent incidents, as a rule at least. They get scared off. Teacher: True. But as far as general discipline is concerned, don't you think it's a community-wide issue? I mean discipline as regards2 everyday actions, with the exception of school discipline. What do you think, in terms of public life, Tariq? Tariq: I think the community as a whole does care about crime and discipline and things, but for the most part they see violence as something that is outside of them, you know, not their direct responsibility. Teacher: OK. So, let's consider the topic in more detail3,1 mean from the point of view of violence and aggression specifically in schools. Let's look at some extracts from the American Medical Association's 2002 report on bullying. They're on the handout. 1 or in respect of, or (more neutral) with regard to 2 another neutral alternative to 1 3 or (more formally) in greater detail Linking points and arguments The increase in house sales is due to the fact that inflation fell in 2004. At the same time, tax rate reductions were beginning to have an effect. Joslav used an eight-point scale in the questionnaire, as opposed to1 a four-point one, by means of which he showed that attitudes covered a very wide range, in the sense that the results were spread very evenly over all eight points. It's very difficult to interpret these data. Be that as it may2, there is some evidence of a decline in frequency. For this reason, we decided to repeat the experiment. In addition to surveying the literature on population movements, we also reviewed work carried out on family names in five regions. 1 rather than 2 a typical academic way of saying 'although I accept that this is true'; more common in speech than in writing 40 Academic Vocabulary in Use Exercises 16.1 Choose one of the expressions in A to fill in the missing words in this feedback to a student from one of her teachers. Yo\) have had a ver^ good fenvi (I) ...................................... . Yoi/ have clone- (2) ................................. ivoKfc and have- afco iafcen pari" in (3) ...................................... Soe-ial activities. Vow Sporting. activities inaij have interfered ivith tjow cfvdieS (4) ...................................... inW" tjoi/ Stiff Managed to ivnte (5) ...................................... "opOO wordc, for tjoi/r end-of-terw aSSJg^rvient, which, I arvi pfea^ed to report; ivaS of a hi^h standard. 16.2 Use the words in the box to form eight different phrases that are useful for academic discussions. I a as as at be for for general in in it may most of on part reason rule same terms the the the that this time whole I I 6.3 From the point of view of meaning, which expression in each set doesn't belong, and why? 1 in genera], by means of which, as a rule, on the whole 2 as regards X, as far as X is concerned, with the exception of X, with respect to X 3 as a whole, in addition to, for the most part, in general I 6.4 Choose the best expression to complete each sentence. 1 .........................................................our discussion, I'd like to focus on the US context. A For the purposes of B In the sense that C From the point of view of 2 There is some evidence of an improvement in the economy but,........................................................, there is unlikely to be much change before next year. A for this reason B as a rule C be that as it may 3 I'd like to consider education.........................................................industry. A in the case of B from the point of view of C with the exception of 4 I'm not sure.........................................................you agree with Qian's theory. A by means of which B to what extent C as regards 5 We will now discuss the development of the Surrealist Movement.......................................................... A on the whole B to some extent C in more detail 16.5 Complete these sentences in any logical way. 1 I enjoy watching most sports with the exception of................................................................................................................ 2 A poor relationship between parents and children is often due to the fact that 3 I love reading English novels as opposed to........................................................................................................................................ 4 In your first year of graduate school you have to take an end-of-year exam in addition to 5 It was a very useful course in the sense that...................................................................................................................................... Academic Vocabulary in Use 41 Applications and application forms Here we look at applying for a place at a UK college or university. Institutions following the US system have different processes, which are usually described on their web pages. Getting information Read this information about preparing an application for postgraduate study. What should I do first? Do all you can to learn about the careers' that will be open to you after studying - and what qualifications you will need in order to get the job you want. What qualifications do I need for postgraduate study? A first degree is required to study at postgraduate level. The specific entry requirements for each course of study are listed on the individual course pages. If needed, clarification2 may be sought3 from the department you are applying to. 4 Your performance in previous schooling is very important to your application profile . What are the requirements for international students? In addition to the general admission requirements, international applicants must submit5: • A transcript6 of university courses and grades, translated into English, and • Results of the International English Language Testing System (IELTS) or Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL), unless you have received English-medium7 education for at least one year. Applicants must have a minimum IELTS score of 6.5 or a TOEFL score of 580. Are any grants8 or scholarships9 available for international students? Visit our International Office pages for details. 1 the job or series of jobs that you do during your working life 2 making something clear by giving more details or a simpler explanation 3 past participle of seek: 'to look for' 4 overall character of the application 5 give something for a decision to be made by others 6 official document listing courses completed and grades received 7 where all the classes are taught in English 8 money given specially by the government to a person to enable them to study 9 money given by a school, college, university, etc. to pay for the studies of a person with great ability The application process Look at this email from Tania to Liam. Tania is applying to study at Wanstow University. Hi Liam, At last I've filled in my application form and sent it off. It took ages. As well as all my personal details they wanted the names of two referees', financial guarantees2, and I had to attach a personal statement saying why I wanted to go to Wanstow. Anyway, the deadline3 is next Friday, then the website said they'd take about six weeks to process4 the application after they acknowledge5 it, then I might be called for6 an interview. By that time the references have to be in. I'm just hoping that because I'm a mature student71 might have a good chance of being offered a place - Wanstow has a lot of mature students and they have a strong equal opportunities policy8. The fees9 are pretty high, but I can get a student loan10 if I get in". Love, Tania 1 person who knows you and who is willing to describe and, usually, praise you, to support your application 2 formal acceptance of financial responsibility and ability to pay (e.g. proof of a bank account) 3 final date by which something must be done 4 deal with documents officially 5 say that they have received it, NOT accepted it 6 asked to attend 7 a student at a college or university who is older than the usual age 8 principle of treating all people the same, regardless of sex, race, religion, etc. 9 amount of money paid for a particular service 10 money which must be repaid when one has completed one's studies 11 (informal) if I am accepted and given a place 42 Academic Vocabulary in Use Exercises I 7.1 Read the text in A and answer a potential student's questions about the university. 1 Is it possible to do a postgraduate degree without having been to university before? 2 Where can I get more information about what qualifications I need for a specific course? 3 Will they want to know about my university grades? 4 When is an IELTS or TOEFL score not needed? 5 What IELTS score should applicants have? I 7.2 Match the first half of the word combination on the left with the second half on the right. personal equal minimum financial mature tough seek student application first opportunities form statement score competition clarification student guarantee loan degree I 7.3 Why does the university want each of these things? Answer in full sentences using, where possible, some of the vocabulary from the opposite page. 1 the names of two referees 4 a transcript of courses taken and grades 2 financial guarantees 5 a minimum TOEFL or IELTS score 3 a personal statement I 7.4 Number the actions to show the order in which they usually happen for a prospective student. .......... wait for the application to be processed .......... find an appropriate course .......... attend an interview .......... attach a personal statement to the form .......... decide on what career they would like to do .......... be offered a place .......... be called for an interview .......... ask referees if it is all right to put their names on the application form .......... check that they fulfil the necessary entry requirements .......... fill in an application form I 7.5 Complete the missing words in this email with words from the opposite page. The first letter of each word is given to help you. IE Hi Miles, I'd love a c......................................as an international lawyer and am really hoping I can g......................................in to Wanstow University to do a p....................................g......................................course in law there. I've f......................................in all the necessary forms and just hope that my academic p......................................will be good enough for them. I think I fulfil all their e..................................... r.....................................but who knows! It took me ages to get the t.....................................of my college g......................................, etc. translated but I managed to get everything in by the d....................................... So now I just have to wait to see if they c......................................me for an interview or not. Fingers crossed! Lucia Look at the website of any English-speaking university that interests you. What information do they provide about applying to that university? Make a note of any other useful vocabulary you find there. AcademicVocabulary in Use 43 I 8 College and university: the UK system Key A Halls of residence1 B University 5"u?rc, stnff c*r pirk C Administration2 Kuil~ i i + *' 12 given special mention 13 people often say that this is the cause 14 recorded, listed More ways of referring to sources Beeching's seminal1 work laid the foundations2 for the field of functional analysis. Keynes's ideas were set out3 in his book, The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money, published in 1936. This work changed the way we look at how economies function. Elsewhere4, Keynes claimed to be developing classical economic theory. Design of compact heat exchangers is dealt with in Appendix A of the report, treated5 separately from the main body6 of the report. 1 important and original work from which other works grow 2 created the first ideas from which a major set of ideas grew 3 gave all the details of his ideas, or explained them clearly (especially used about writing) 4 in another work by him 5 more formal version of deal with 6 the main part 54 Academic Vocabulary in Use Exercises 23.1 Match the beginning of each sentence with the most appropriate ending. 23.2 23.3 § 1 The letters proved to be a valuable 2 An extensive body of literature 3 Newspapers are a good primary 4 The data are not given in the main 5 Plastics are not dealt with in the present 6 The thesis begins with a review of study, which focuses on metals only, body of the book; they are in the appendix, the literature on intellectual property rights, exists on human to animal communication, source for the period 1980-1985. resource for the study of the poet's life. Rewrite the sentences using the word in brackets. 1 The article refers to the work of Hindler and Swartz (1988). (makes) 2 Schunker's book was a useful critique for understanding the pre-war period. I also consulted original government papers, (secondary) 3 Tanaka's book uses data from several Japanese articles on galaxy formation, (draws) 4 In a different paper, Kallen reports on his research into cancer rates among farm workers. (elsewhere) 5 Han consulted the documents of historical importance in the Vienna Museum. (archives) Complete the table. Use a dictionary if necessary. Do not fill in the shaded boxes. noun verb adjective adverb attribute document consult primary catalogue foundation note suggest extensive cite 23.4 Look at this advice about plagiarism [pronounced /'pleid33nz3m/, the serious offence of using other people's work while pretending it is your own, without clearly acknowledging the source of that information] given to students by an American university. Underline words and phrases which mean: 1 Expressing the same message in different words 2 Things known by everyone 3 Stating that one has obtained one's information from that source 4 Direct repetition of what someone has written or said 5 Stating that you have benefited from someone's work How can students avoid plagiarism? To avoid plagiarism, you must give credit by acknowledging your source whenever you use: another person's idea, opinion, or theory; any facts, statistics, graphs, drawings - any pieces of information - that are not common knowledge; quotations of another person's actual spoken or written words; or a paraphrase of another person's spoken or written words. Academic Vocabulary in Use 55 Facts, evidence and data Being able to use the vocabulary in this unit well will help you avoid repetition in your writing. Countable or uncountable nouns Fact is a countable noun and evidence is uncountable - you can refer to one piece of evidence or to the body of evidence [large amount of evidence]. Some people consider data as a plural noun - these data show an unexpected trend - while others consider it as uncountable - this data differs from last year's. This is a particularly interesting piece/item of data. The tendency is increasingly to use data as an uncountable noun but you will see both forms and may use it whichever way you prefer yourself. Words often used with facts, evidence and data Researchers try to establish the facts. They hope that the facts will bear out1 or support their hypothesis. Most carefully check their facts before presenting them to others although there are, of course, dishonest people prepared to distort2 the facts in order to claim that their facts are interesting, relevant3, undeniable or little-known. 1 confirm 2 change 3 connected to the topic being discussed Notice how fact is also often used in sentences like the following: It is hard to account for the fact that4 share prices rose over this period. The problem stems from the fact that5 there is a basic conflict of interests. The lecturer drew attention to the fact that6 the economy was starting to improve. 4 explain why 5 has arisen because 6 emphasised that Researchers may look for, collect, examine and consider evidence. The evidence they collect may point to or suggest a conclusion. If the evidence is growing or widespread it may serve to support a theory. In writing up their research they aim to provide or offer sufficient evidence to support their theories. They are happy if the evidence they find is convincing or powerful and are less happy if the evidence is flimsy7 or conflicting8. They are pleased if new evidence comes to light9 or emerges and if they find abundant10 evidence. They may talk about finding hard evidence". 7 not strong 8 contradictory 9 becomes known, see Unit 9 10 plenty of evidence which is reliable and can be proven, used mainly in spoken in English reliable12. obtain suggests comprehensive13. organise reflects The data is accurate. You analyse data. Data indicates something. empirical14. interpret shows record demonstrates 12 can be trusted 13 full, complete 14 based on observation rather than theory Giving examples You often need to give or provide an example to illustrate the facts you're presenting. A good example can be described as striking, clear, vivid, illuminating or telling. Sometimes, particularly in written English, the word instance is used as an alternative to example. There is a striking instance of the author's use of metaphor in the final poem. We shall now analyse one specific instance of this problem. Say can be used in informal English instead of for example. Try and finish writing the report by, say, next Friday. There are many verbs in English which can be spelt either -ise/-yse or -/ze/-yze depending on whether the writer is using British English or American English spelling. See Reference 4. Academic Vocabulary in Use Exercises 24.1 Fill the gaps in this extract from a university seminar on forest conservation. Some students are questioning aspects of a presentation given by Sandra, one of the group. The first letter of each missing word is given to help you. Aidan: I enjoyed your presentation, and you've e......................................some interesting facts about the loss of forests year on year, and it's u......................................that tropical forests are in danger. But I think the evidence you o......................................for your claim that sustainable forest exploitation is failing is very f.....................................and not very c......................................at all. We need to c.....................................a lot more data. Right now there's a lot of c...................................... evidence, so we can't say for certain that it's not working. Sandra: If you want h...................................... evidence, just look at the International Tropical Timber Organisation, and read their latest report. Their evidence d...................................... that only three per cent of tropical forests are being managed properly. Petra: Well, I've read the ITTO report, and actually it d.....................................attention to the fact that their previous report had found only one per cent of forests were properly managed, so you may be d.................................the facts a little by just looking at one year. And also, there's a lot of 1......................................-k......................................work being done with local people to encourage them to conserve the forests, so you could say there's g.....................................evidence that things are getting better. Dr Li: Hmm, I don't think we're going to agree on this. I think, as usual, it's a question of how you i......................................the data. Thanks, anyway, for your presentation, Sandra. 24.2 The sentences below are correct. Vary them by substituting the words in bold for words or expressions with similar meanings. 1 The data show that the drug education project has been successful. 2 The data in the latest study are more complete than in the earlier one. 3 This is the most interesting piece of data in the whole thesis. 4 What a clear example this is of the power of the human mind! 5 Unfortunately, the facts do not bear out the hypothesis. 6 We cannot explain the fact that attitudes are more negative now than five years ago. 7 The problem arises from the fact that the software was poorly designed. 8 The article gives examples of different methods which have been used over the years. 9 New evidence has emerged that the cabinet was not informed of the Minister's decision. 10 We need to examine the evidence before we can reach a conclusion. 11 The evidence suggesting that sanctions do not work is plentiful and very strong. 12 A considerable amount of evidence now exists, but we always try to get more. 13 We have a lot of observed data which suggest the problem is on the increase. 14 This is a clear example of how conservation can benefit local people. 24.3 One word in each sentence does not fit the sentence. Which is it? 1 Thorsen's aim was to establish I check I bear out I present the facts. 2 The evidence suggests / points to / supports / emerges a different conclusion. 3 Lopez collected I reflected I obtained I recorded some fascinating data. 4 The writer provides some growing I telling I striking I illuminating examples. 5 The evidence Mistry presents is convincing / flimsy I vivid I conflicting. Look at any text from your discipline and see what words are used with facts, data and evidence. Are they the same as the ones in this unit? Note any different ones. Academic Vocabulary in Use 57 25 Numbers Types of numbers Numbers in a group together may be called a series or set of numbers. If the order in which they occur is significant then they may be called a sequence of numbers. 1, 4, 9, 16, 25 is a sequence of numbers, for example - it represents the numbers 1 to 5 squared. 1, 3, 5, 7 ... = odd numbers; 2, 4, 6, 8 ... = even numbers; 2, 3, 5, 7, 11 ... = prime numbers. The highest number in a group is the maximum and the lowest is the minimum. The room holds a maximum of SO and we won't run the class without a minimum of 12 students. An approximate number is one which is roughly correct but is not the precise or exact number. Look at the figures and work out in your head what the approximate answer is likely to be. Then use a calculator to find the exact number. An aggregate is a number reached by totalling a set of numbers = the total. The average mark achieved in the exam is calculated by taking the aggregate of all the marks and dividing by the number of exam entries. A discrete number or unit is something which is separate and cannot be divided into smaller numbers or units of the same thing. The opposite of discrete is continuous. A bag of apples, for example, could be considered as consisting of discrete items whereas apple sauce could be considered - by mathematicians, at least - as continuous. A constant number or quantity is one that does not change. In the experiment we varied [changed] the amount of water in the beaker but kept the amount of salt added constant. A random number is one chosen by chance, i.e. it is not predictable. Working with numbers The word figure is often used to refer to the symbol used for a number. Write the total number in words and figures. Verbs that are frequently used with the word number include calculate [work out] a number, estimate1 a number, round a number up/down2, total [add up] a set of numbers. Numbers can also tally3. My figures don't seem to tally with yours. You can also deduct [take away, subtract] one number from another number. 1 make a rough guess at 2 make a fraction, e.g. \ or 0.78 into the nearest whole number 3 match, agree Values and variables are also useful terms when working with numbers. Values are individual numbers in a set of data. The graph shows the temperature values for different months of the year. Variables are characteristics that can take on different values for different members of a group or set being studied. In investigating living standards you must take key variables such as social provision and cost of living into account. The incidence of something refers to how frequently it occurs. The incidence of twins in the population is growing. When talking about numbers, magnitude simply refers to the size of something, whereas in other contexts it indicates large size or importance. Write down the numbers in order of magnitude, beginning with the smallest. When making calculations in, say, an exam, it is often a good idea to make an estimate4 first of what the answer is likely to be. Then you will see if your final answer is in the right area5 or not. Exam candidates are also often advised to show their workings6 so that the marker can see how they arrived at their answer and they may get credit for their method even if the final answer is incorrect. 4 rough guess 5 approximately the same 6 leave all their calculations on the page 58 Academic Vocabulary in Use Exercises 25.1 Answer these questions. 1 What is five squared? 2 What is the next prime number after 19? 3 How is this sequence of numbers created? 3, 9, 27, 81 4 What is the aggregate of this set of test marks? 6, 8, 9, 5, 6, 7 5 If you round up 6.66, what number do you have? 6 9 and 4 - which is a whole number and which is a fraction? 7 In your country is tax automatically deducted from employees' earnings? 8 Is an accountant pleased or displeased if figures that he/she is checking tally? 25.2 Dr Syal is advising one of his dissertation students who is interested in pollution in road tunnels. Complete the conversation. You are sometimes given the first letter to help you. Dr Syal: You could c.....................................the total number of private cars that use the tunnel each week, based on the day-to-day figures, and get an a......................................figure for how much carbon they're all emitting. Melissa: How p......................................would that figure have to be? Dr Syal: Oh, it doesn't have to be exact, you just need to e......................................more or less what the total pollution will be. Then you can check to see if those figures t...................................... with the figures that have already been published for similar tunnels. And the figure won't be c......................................of course; it'll go up and down depending on lots of factors such as weather conditions, average speed, etc. Melissa: But can we say if the figures will be true for the future too? Dr Syal: Well, we do know that the traffic growth has been c......................................over the past ten years; it hasn't ever gone down, so I think you can make some useful predictions. Melissa: Should I present each daily total as a d......................................item or can I just put them all together into one figure for each week? Dr Syal: A weekly total is fine, and you can....................................it up or.....................................to the nearest 100. Melissa: Right, OK. Thanks so much for your help. 25.3 Rewrite these spoken sentences so that they are more appropriate for writing, using the word in italics in an appropriate form. 1 There were fewer car accidents last year, incidence 2 We made a rough guess at what the final figure might be. estimate 3 The graph shows the results from the lowest to the highest, magnitude 4 A computer program helped us work out the significance of the different variables, calculate 5 Taking x away from y will help you arrive at the correct answer, subtract 6 The results from the first experiment were not the same as those we got from the repeat experiment, tally 25.4 Fill in the gaps in this advice a maths lecturer is giving her students. In the exam, don't forget to show all your (1).............................as we want to see how you (2)...................................... at your results. Make your (3)..............................very carefully - you'd be amazed at how many people submit answers that are hardly even in the right (4)............................... And please write legibly - we must be able to distinguish all your (5)............................. ! When doing graphs, plot your (6)......................................carefully and if asked to describe an experiment don't forget to take all significant (7).....................................into account. Good luck! Find some examples of the use of numbers in your own subject area. Note down some interesting phrases or sentences. Academic Vocabulary in Use 59 26 Statistics A Basic statistical terms Notice the key vocabulary in these three short texts about statistics. Six children are 7, 8, 8, 8, 11 and 12 years ol Their average age is 9 years old (the sum of their ages divided by six). The mode (the most frequent value) is 8. The median is 9.5 (the halfway point between the two extremes of the range). A normal distribution of data means that most of the examples in a set of data are close to the average, while relatively few examples tend to one extreme or the other. Normally distributed data shown on a chart will typically show a bell curve. It will often be necessary to work out the extent to which individuals deviate' from the norm2 and to calculate the figure that represents standard deviation3. Statisticians are often concerned with working out correlations4 - the extent to which, say, left-handedness correlates with intelligence. They must ensure that any data they collect is valid, i.e. that it is measuring what it claims to measure - all the subjects in the sample5 must be appropriately and accurately assessed as left- or right-handed, for example. The figures must also be reliable, i.e. they would be consistent6 if the measurements were repeated. Usually, statisticians hope that their calculations will show/indicate a tendency, e.g. that left-handed people will be shown to be significantly7 more intelligent than right-handed people. ' differ 2 the average 3 average difference from the norm 4 connections, often as cause and effect 5 the subjects of the experiment or group representing the total population measured 6 the same 7 noticeably A probability' problem Notice the vocabulary in this problem from a statistics textbook. Sue picks a card at random2 from an ordinary pack of 52 cards. If the card is a king, she stops. If not, she continues to pick cards at random, without replacing them, until either a king is picked or six cards have been picked. The random variable3, C, is the total number of cards picked. Construct a diagram to illustrate the possible outcomes4 of the experiment, and use it to calculate the probability distribution5 of C. ' likelihood of something happening 2 by chance 3 number or element of a situation that can change 4 results 5 assessment of probabilities for each possible value of C Other useful nouns for talking about statistics In a class of 8 women and 4 men, what proportion1 are male? Answer: one third In the same class what is the female to male ratio2? Answer: 2:1 The figures show a trend3 towards healthier eating habits. The study investigates the increase in the volume4 of traffic on the roads. 1 number compared with another number 2 relationship between two numbers showing how much bigger one is 3 change in a particular direction 4 amount, quantity We say 10 per cent (NOT the 10 per cent or 10 percentage) of students got an A for their exam but the percentage of students achieving an A has increased. Academic Vocabulary in Use Exercises 26.1 Complete the sentences. 1 The six subjects who took the test scored 24, 22, 16, 16, 16, and 14 points out of 30. The ......................................was 16. The......................................score was 19 and the......................................score was 18. 2 The......................................of all donations to the charity in 2003 was $3,938. The smallest donation was $10 and the largest was $130. Most were around the......................................point of $60. 3 Each questionnaire item asked respondents to choose one of a......................................of six options, with the two......................................being 'very dissatisfied indeed' and 'completely satisfied'. 26.2 Use the correct form of the words in the box to complete this text. distribute trend significant probable random correlation outcome vary Life insurance companies base their calculations on the laws of......................................, that is they assess the likely......................................, given the different......................................such as age, sex, lifestyle and medical history of their clients.The premiums are therefore not chosen at ......................................but are carefully calculated.The......................................of ages at which death occurs and causes of death are studied to see if they......................................with other factors to be taken into account in setting the premiums. Naturally, the companies also monitor social ..........................and react to any changes which might.....................................affect mortality rates. 1 26.3 Answer the questions. 1 There are 12 male students and 6 female students in the class. What is the ratio of males to females? And what proportion of the class is male? 2 If I am collecting data on course choices among second-year undergraduates and my sample is too small, what exactly do I need to do? 3 If my data show that students have a tendency to choose the type of clothing their friends choose, does it mean that they always, often or rarely choose similar clothes? 4 If I repeat the same experiment three times and the results are not consistent, is my method reliable? 5 If 20 out of 200 students fail an exam, what proportion, in percentage terms, failed? 6 If the average score in a test is 56, and Barbara scores 38, by how many points has she deviated from the norm? 7 If the volume of court cases increases, what changes: the type of case, the size of each case or the total number of cases? 8 What does standard deviation tell us? (a) What the standard of something is, (b) what the norm is, or (c) what the average difference from the norm is? 9 If a general survey of teenage eating habits asks questions about what teenagers eat for breakfast and lunch, is the survey likely to be valid? 10 Here is a graph showing how many students got scores within each 10-mark band in a biology test. Are the scores normally distributed? What is the shape of the graph called? What kinds of statistical data are likely to be discussed in your discipline? Find a relevant chart, graph or table and write about it using some terms from this unit. 30-39 40-49 ' 50-59 ' 60-69 ' 70-79 ' 80-89 ' 90-100' range of scores Academic Vocabulary in Use 61 7 Graphs and diagrams Types of diagrams ft. In histogram tabic cross-section flowchart pie chart LMflL_il__L bar chart Diagrams are visual ways of presenting data concisely. They are often also called figures. In an academic article they are usually labelled Fig. (Figure) 1, Fig. 2, etc. A pie chart is a circle divided into segments from the middle (like slices of a cake) to show how the total is divided up. A key or legend shows what each segment represents. A bar chart is a diagram in which different amounts are represented by thin vertical or horizontal bars which have the same width but vary in height or length. A histogram is a kind of bar chart but the bar width also varies to indicate different values. A table is a grid with columns and rows of numbers. A cross-section is something, or a model of something, cut across the middle so that you can see the inside. A cross-section of the earth's crust, for example, shows the different layers that make it up. A label gives the name of each part of the cross-section. Cross-section can also be used to mean a small group that is representative of all the different types within the total group (e.g. the survey looked at a cross-section of society). A flowchart is a diagram which indicates the stages of a process. □ Weekly pocket money received by teenagers in the UK age A graph The graph presents data relating to teenagers and pocket money. A random sample of 1,000 teenagers were surveyed and the average pocket money received at each age has been plotted on the graph. The x axis or horizontal axis indicates age and the y axis or vertical axis shows the amount of money received per week. The graph shows that 15-year-olds receive twice as much pocket money as 13-year-olds. From the graph we can see that the amount received reaches a peak at the age of 18 and then starts to decline. This decline can perhaps be explained by the fact that many teenagers start earning and stop receiving pocket money at the age of 18. Graphs are drawn by plotting points on them and then drawing a line to join adjacent points. If there are two lines on a graph - separate lines, for example, to indicate boys' and girls' pocket money - then the lines would probably cross or intersect at various points. Lines that run parallel to one another never intersect. Graphs show how numbers increase or decrease. The nouns increase and decrease have the stress on the first syllable, but the verbs have the stress on the second syllable. Numbers can also be said to rise or grow and fall, drop or decline. The nouns rise, growth, fall, drop and decline, like increase and decrease are followed by in (to explain what is rising) or of (to explain the size of the change), e.g. a rise of 10% in the number of cars. Other verbs used about growth include double1, soar2, multiply3, appreciate4 and exceed5. 1 grow to twice the size; opposite = halve 2 (dramatic word) rapid movement upwards; opposite = plummet 3 grow rapidly to a very large number 4 used about the value of something, e.g. a painting or car; opposite = depreciate number; opposite = fall below go over, expresses a number in relation to another Note that graph is a noun and graphic [relating to drawing: vivid, especially when describing something unpleasant] is usually an adjective. The economics textbook contains a lot af fascinating graphs. My nephew studied graphic design.The book contains some very graphic descriptions of the massacre. Graphics can be used as a plural noun to refer to pictorial material, e.g. The graphics in that computer game are brilliant 62 Academic Vocabulary in Use Exercises 27.1 Look at the chart. Complete the commentary with words from the opposite page. rs entering downtown West City n number of cars per day 4 ' 5 year e chart. ... the number of cars entering the downtown area of West City each day over an eight-year period (years 1-8). The totals are listed on the......................................axis {give two answers), while the years are listed on the......................................axis {give two answers). To the right of the graph we see the....................................... The number of cars...................................... over the period. The total rose in the first few years and......................................a ......................................in year 5, after which the numbers started to...................................... This can be......................................by the......................................that a new mass transit railway was opened in year 6, which is a......................................illustration of how good public transport can dramatically affect car use. 27.2 Answer the questions. 1 Draw examples of a pie chart and a bar chart. 2 "What would be the best type of diagram to present the different layers of rock in the Grand Canyon? 3 In a table, what is the difference between columns and rows? 4 What would be the best type of diagram to present the different stages in a research project you did? 5 How many segments are there in the pie chart opposite? 6 If you look at two adjacent columns in a table, are they next to each other or separated? 7 What is another name for a legend in a diagram? 8 What type of data collection are you doing if you survey the first 50 people you come across? 9 What do two lines on a graph do if (a) they intersect and (b) they run parallel to each other? 27.3 Make the rather informal words in bold sound more precise and academic. 1 The different bits of the pie chart show the numbers of people in each age group. 2 She kept a record by marking the midday temperature on a graph for a month. 3 People's salaries usually reach their highest point when they are in their late 40s. 3 This flowchart shows the different bits of our project over the next five years. 5 The two lines on the graph cross each other at point A. 6 Draw a line connecting the points that are next to each other. 7 The government's popularity in the opinion polls is beginning to fall. 8 If you look along the top line of the table you can see the figures for the 1950s. 27.4 Change the sentences using words with the same meanings as the words in bold. 1 Populations of some bird species in South Asia have crashed by 97% in recent years. The number of cases of death by poisoning has increased sharply. 2 In 2007 the child mortality rate was lower than 60 deaths per 1,000. 3 The average family car in the UK goes down in value by 20% per year. This means its value has fallen by more than half after just three years. 4 A typical piece of land on the edge of the city will go up in value by 15% per year, and house prices have gone up rapidly in the last six months. 5 Business courses have increased greatly in number while science programmes have gone down. 6 The temperature was higher than 45°C in some parts of the country during the heatwave. 7 Between 1983 and 2006, the number of this species of condor* went up from 22 pairs to 273. Other bird populations have gone up by two times in the same period. 8 The numbers of old soldiers attending regimental reunions are becoming smaller each year. * large birds from South America AcademicVocabulary in Use 63 Money and education Financing your studies in the UK • Search for funding - are you eligible1 for a scholarship or other award2? • Budget planner-work out your yearly expenditure3 and total cost of your course. Tuition fees4: From 2006/07, no full-time student will have to pay tuition fees before or during their course. Instead, students will be able to defer payment5 by taking out a student loan, which they will only start to repay once they have left college. Grants: From September 200G, new full-time students from lower income households will be able to apply for a non-repayable maintenance grant6 of upto£2,?00 (approximately US $5,400] a year. Grants are payable in three instalments7, one at the start of each term. Bank accounts: Student bank accounts are similar to normal current accounts but they also have additional benefits such as interest-free overdrafts8. Student loans: Student loans are available to help you meet your living costs while studying. The loans are fixed at a low interest rate. ?5 percent of the maximum loan is available to all students regardless of other income9. After your entitlement10 has been assessed the information will be passed to the Student Loans Company who will make any payments and maintain your account. Managing debt: Since student grants were abolished in 1998, most students struggle to make ends meet1'. Student debt has soared12 and many can now expect to accumulate13 debts of over£10,000. Cost of living: London is the most expensive place to study in the UK. Although students in London receive bigger loans to compensate for the increased costs, there is no variation in the amount of financial support available for students in other more expensive areas. I 1 do you meet the requirements 2 money available for students to get (e.g. by doing well in an exam or by fulfilling certain requirements 3 spending (AmE: expenditures) 4 what students pay for being taught 5 arrange to pay later 6 money to live on which does not need to be paid back 7 parts 8 amount that can be borrowed from the bank without paying any interest charges 9 money you receive from work or parents, for example 10 how much you can be given manage financially 12 risen dramatically 13 build up Conference Grants for graduate students in the US Conference Grants cover up to 60% of an applicant's accountable expenses . The maximum Conference Grant per applicant is $700. Amounts spent in excess of a Grant allocation, even if documented with original2 receipts3, cannot be reimbursed . Transportation (by the most economical5 means available), lodging6 (excluding food), registration fees7, and expenses related to presenting a paper (photocopying, etc.) are all accountable. Restaurant bills and costs related to personal advancement, such as copying and distribution of resumes8, are not accountable expenses. II 1 spending money that can be claimed back 2 not photocopies 3 pieces of paper proving money was paid 4 paid back (after money has already been spent) s spending as little money as possible (cf. economic = relating to the economy) 6 BrE: accommodation 7 money paid to register for a conference 8 pronounced /'rezumei/; BrE: CV, pronounced /,si:'vi:/ 64 Academic Vocabulary in Use Exercises 28.1 Use the words from the box to fill the gaps in the text. a grant compensate the cost of living tuition fees debt earning make ends meet repay take out loans considerable expenditure Few students get.........................................................to help them study and so many.........................................................while they are at university.This is because they have to pay............................................ .They also cannot avoid......................................................on everyday life.This is particularly hard for students in London where......................................................is higher than elsewhere in the country. Students living in London are allowed to have bigger loans to help.........................................................for this. Students do not need to start to....................................................their loan until they are.......................................................a reasonable salary. But starting working life with a large.........................................................makes it much harder for young people to .....................................................even once they start earning. 28.2 Rewrite these sentences using the word in brackets. 1 Answer these questions to find out whether you have the right to apply for a student grant. (eligible) 2 I've opened a bank account that I can take money out of at any time. (current) 3 Most people seem to be finding it harder to find enough money for their everyday living costs, (meet) 4 Increasing numbers of students leave college owing a lot of money, (accumulate) 5 Parents often help their children financially while they are at university, (support as a noun) 6 The amount of tax that people pay depends on how much money they receive from earnings or other sources. (income) 7 It is possible to pay back your loan later but you may well end up paying more than you would have done if you had repaid it sooner, (defer) 8 You pay for your hotel first and we pay you back later, (reimburse) 28.3 Correct the two vocabulary errors in each of these sentences. 1 The cost of life is so high here that students have to live in the most economic way they can. 2 As student debts have soured over the last few years, far more students now leave university with a huge overdrawn. 3 Our Student Loans Officer will let you know if you have any entitle to a loan and, if so, will help you to organise taking one off. 4 You must have original recipes if you want to claim your expense. 5 If you run out of money before the next installation of your grant is due you can get an interest-less loan. 28.4 Answer these questions about student finance. 1 Do students have to pay tuition fees for higher education in your country? 2 Should all students get a non-repayable maintenance grant to study? Why (not)? 3 What kinds of scholarships and other awards are available in your country? 4 Do you think all students should be eligible for free loans? Why (not)? ESj Find a website relating to financial arrangements for students at a university you know or are EM interested in. Which of the words and expressions from this unit do you see there? Make a note u of any other useful vocabulary you find there. Academic Vocabulary in Use 65 Time Periods of time A century = 100 years. A decade = 10 years. An annual conference is one that happens every year. A quarterly journal is one that comes out four times a year. An era is a particular period of time that is marked by special events or developments, e.g. the post-war era, an era of rapid social change. A phase is any stage in a series of events or process of development. A phase or stage can be initial [beginning], intermediate [middle] or final. It may also be described as preceding [happening before now], current [happening now], critical [particularly important] or transitional [in the process of change]. Adjectives relating to time adjective example meaning concurrent There were concurrent riots in several northern towns. occurring at the same time contemporary 1 studied all the contemporary accounts of the battle 1 could find. Jo is researching contemporary music. dating from the same period existing now eventual The eventual cost of the project is likely to exceed €10 million. happening or existing later, after effort or problems forthcoming My article will be published in the forthcoming issue of the New Scientist. happening soon ongoing Helen has a number of ongoing projects. happening now simultaneous There were simultaneous concerts in several cities. happening at the same time subsequent The book examines the war and the subsequent changes in society. happening after something else successive Successive governments would face similar problems. happening immediately after something else temporary Georgia got a temporary position at the university. not for a long period; not permanent How times change In recent times - particularly the last 20 years - society has gone through a period of considerable change. Prior to the 1990s very few people had access to a home computer. Nowadays1 the majority of homes have at least one computer. This expansion in home computing has coincided with2 the emergence3 of internet technology. At the moment we are at a stage where the situation is still evolving4. Subsequent generations will live in a very different world although we do not know exactly how things will develop over the next few years, in the near future5, or, least of all, in the distant future6. at the present time (used to compare with the past, particularly in spoken English or more informal writing) 2 happened at the same time as 3 appearance 4 gradually changing 5 at a time which is not far away 6 far away in the future Some time words, e.g. early, late, daily can be both adverbs and adjectives, e.g. a(n) eariyl late/daily meeting, we met early Hotel doily. But nowadays is only an adverb. We talk about presentlpresent-daylcurrent problems NOT nowadays problems. Academic Vocabulary in Use Exercises 29.1 Read these emails sent out to staff and postgraduate students from their university. Complete the time expressions. You are given the first letters. The i..............................p........................of the construction of the new sports centre will begin on 1st March. From that date until completion of the works, the West Car Park will be closed. A t...............car park will be available during the period at Campus East, and a new, p.................. car park will be opened when the f............ stage of construction of the centre is completed. Due to o.....................................technical, problems, emails with large attachments may not be accepted by the university's server. This is likely to continue during the t......................................period while a new server is being installed. This will reach a c,.................................... stage next week, when problems may be greatest. We apologise for the inconvenience. 29.2 Choose the correct words in italics to complete these sentences. 1 In I At the moment, I'm writing up my thesis. I hope to finish in the near I next future. 2 Our research is at I in an intermediate I ongoing stage - we now need to analyse our data. 3 The emergency I emergence of internet technology has transformed the travel industry. 4 The university has gone I got through a period of great change in the latest I last decade. 5 In the far I distant future, scientists may be able to cure almost all common diseases. 6 Anti-social behaviour is a nowadays problem I a problem nowadays in many big cities. 7 A series I serial of events occurred in 1986 which changed the political climate in the country. In consequent I subsequent years, two new parties were formed which became engaged in concurrent I eventual attempts to win over voters. 8 Prior of I to 2001, the industry was unregulated. In recent I the last years, however, the government has introduced new regulations. 9 In 1968, a monetary crisis coincided with 11o a huge budget deficit, and most contemporary I temporary political commentators warned that the eventual I forthcoming cost to the nation would be enormous. 29.3 Fill in the missing forms. Do not fill the shaded boxes. Use a dictionary if necessary. noun verb adjective adverb eventual successive evolve emergence coincide period Write five sentences relevant to your discipline using forms from the table. Please report by 29 July 2007 all publications for the c.....................................academic year, including f......................... papers and books (with the expected date of publication). These are needed for the University's a......................................report for 2007. Include any publication from the p...................................... year (2006) which was not published at that time but which has since appeared. The University today celebrates a c...................................... of research. 100 years ago this month, the Centre for Medical Research was officially opened. In the last d......................................alone, five major new research centres have opened, a record for a ten-year period. We look forward to the start of a new e......................................of research over the n......................................f........ .......years. Academic Vocabulary in Use 67 Cause and effect Much academic study is concerned with establishing cause and effect or the relationship that exists between events, objects, variables or states of affairs. Cause and effect is often described using conjunctions like because, prepositions like due to and because of and adverbs like therefore and consequently. In this unit, however, we focus on nouns and verbs relating to cause and effect. Pay particular attention to the prepositions they are used with. A Verbs relating to cause and effect You are probably already familiar with these verbs relating to cause and effect: make, cause, create, do, produce, force. Here are some other useful verbs. Her grandmother influenced / had a considerable influence on Sarah's choice of career. Parental attitude largely determines how well a child adapts to school, [is the main factor affecting] The teacher motivated them to work hard, [made them want to do something positive] The flow of traffic through the town is facilitated by the one-way system, [made easier] The speech provoked an angry response, [caused, usually something negative] The explosion was triggered by the heat, [started, usually something sudden and negative] The tilting of the earth on its axis accounts for the change in the seasons, [explains] Sid's determination springs/stems from his desire to improve the world, [is the result of] The country's victory gave rise to a new mood in society. The mobile phone contributed to the information revolution, [was one factor influencing] The child was given drugs to stimulate growth, [cause something to develop or function] The exhibition generated a lot of interest, [aroused, caused to exist] The drugs may induce nausea, [cause, often used in a medical context] The teacher's presence inhibited the teenagers' discussion, [prevented it from being as free as it might otherwise have been] A number of benefits can be derived from this situation, [gained as a result] B Nouns relating to cause and effect noun example meaning/comment chain reaction The incident set off a chain reaction which affected us all. set of related events in which each one causes the next one consequence The war had major consequences. results effect, impact The effect/impact of the film on the audience was very powerful. influence end Does the end justify the means? note how end here means aim origin/source The accident was the origin/source of her later problems. beginning or cause outcome We hope for a positive outcome to the discussions. result or effect of an action precedent There are several precedents for taking such a decision. something that already happened and provides a reason for doing the same reason What was the reason for his success / why he succeeded? note how reason is often followed by for or why While cause can be both a noun and a verb, effect is usually a noun.The equivalent verb is affect. Her father's problems affected her deeply. Her father's problems had a profound effect on her. Note the formal and infrequent verb effect [= achieve], mainly used in the phrase to effect a change. (See also Unit 3.) Academic Vocabulary in Use Exercises 30.1 Replace the underlined words with a more precise verb of cause or effect. Note that all the sentences below are appropriate for essays apart perhaps from 6 with its use of 'got'. 1 Researchers are investigating why chocolate causes headaches in certain people. 2 Wilson's most recent paper has caused a great deal of interest among sociologists. 3 The drug caused headaches and dizziness among a number of subjects in the test. 4 Having an end-of-term prize helps students to do well in their class tests. 5 Intensive farming has been a significant factor in the decline of bird populations. 6 The missile test got an immediate and very strong response from adjacent governments and from the United Nations. 7 Astrologists believe that people's lives are largely affected by the planets and stars. 8 The barrier affects the flow of water into the area to prevent flooding in the rainy season. 9 A leak in the tank explained 40% of the fuel loss, and evaporation took away another 5%. 10 The renovated college buildings have wider doors and corridors to make the use of wheelchairs easier. 11 The Minister cut taxes in an attempt to affect the economy, which was performing poorly. 12 Britain has received many economic benefits from membership of the European Union. 30.2 Match the beginning of each sentence with the most appropriate ending. 1 The article explores the origins major consequences for larger families. 2 One small explosion set off a chain precedents for his decision. 3 The confusion probably stemmed rise to a widespread sense of disillusionment. 4 The proposed new tax could have of the concept of democracy. 5 The disastrous events of 2003 gave reaction, causing massive damage. 6 The judge explained that there were from a lack of communication. 30.3 Choose the correct word in italics to complete these sentences. 1 De Routa's work in the 1970s influenced on I to I - the development of computer science. 2 The acid seemed to have no affect I effect whatsoever on the plastic. 3 Everyone hoped for a positive outcome upon I off I to the meeting between the two governments. 4 The reason for I to I of the failure of the project was a lack of funding. 5 The impact of global warming for I on I to the polar ice caps is now understood more clearly. 6 The journalist wondered what particular ending I end the government had in mind when it decided to build a national tennis academy. 30.4 What are the nouns from the same root as these verbs? Use a dictionary if necessary. 6^ motivate facilitate influence provoke trigger contribute stimulate induce derive 30.5 Now rewrite these sentences using a noun instead of the verb. 1 Byron's poetry influenced Romantic poets in a number of other European countries. 2 Tree pollen can trigger hay fever attacks in vulnerable people. 3 In obstetrics the drug can be used to help induce labour. 4 The new economic measures were introduced to stimulate the faltering economy. 5 Tomoko is studying what motivates world-class athletes. Find a text describing a major event or series of events (e.g. an accident, a war, a social change) and note all the verbs and nouns in it relating to causes and effects or results.Write your own example sentences using these words. AcademicVocabulary in Use 69 3 I Talking about ideas Postmodernism Look at the useful language for talking about ideas in the description of one idea below. Postmodernism describes a movement1 of intellectual thought2 which has had a major impact on a number of academic disciplines3 since the late 20th century. Perhaps the best way to understand postmodernism is as a reaction4 to modernism. Modernism emphasises purity, honesty and total truth; for example, when an artist attempts to express the essence5 of a whole subject with a single line. In contrast, postmodernism asserts that experience is personal and cannot be generalised6 and that meaning is only for the individual to experience, not for someone else to dictate. Thus, postmodernists maintain that the person who, for example, admires a painting or reads a poem is free to interpret its meaning, and that different people will come to very different, but equally valid7, conclusions as to what that meaning is. 1 group of people sharing aims or beliefs 2 thinking in general 3 subjects 4 process of change stimulated by something else, often moving in the opposite direction 5 the most important quality or characteristics 6 presented as something that is always true 7 appropriate A number of words that are useful for talking about ideas have irregular plurals - criterion/ criteria, phenomenon/phenomena, hypothesis/hypotheses, analysis/analyses, thesis/the: They all originate from Ancient Greek. Perhaps this sentence will help you remember them. There are several different hypotheses which claim to explain these phenomena and in his doctoral thesis Kohl offers an analysis of each hypothesis in accordance with a rigorous set of criteria. Some useful nouns relating to ideas word meaning example concept principle, idea The concept of honesty is understood differently in different cultures. framework system of rules, beliefs or ideas used as the basis for something Mary is working on an analytical framework to help people design and evaluate training courses. model simple description useful for discussing ideas The writer uses a Marxist model as the basis for his discussion of the economy. notion belief, idea She doesn't agree with the notion that boys and girls should be taught separately. perception belief, opinion, held by many people The novel had a powerful impact on people's perception of the war. stance way of thinking, often publicly stated The government has made their stance on the boycott issue clear. viewpoint opinion, way of looking at an issue The article provides a different viewpoint on this difficult topic. In academic writing it is best to avoid In my opinion and to use a less personal expression like It can be argued that ... or Most (people) would agree that ... You discuss an idea or talk/write obout an idea but NOT diseuss about an idea. 70 Academic Vocabulary in Use Exercises 31.1 Replace the words in bold with words from A with similar meanings. 1 Many educators believe that different learning styles are equally acceptable. 2 In the UK a university faculty is a unit where similar subjects are grouped together. 3 The French impressionists were a key group with shared aims in European art. 4 The most important quality of international law is the application of a single standard for strong and weak nations alike. 5 Researchers spend much of their time trying to understand the meaning of their data. 6 Some 19th century artistic styles were a direct response to the ugliness of industrialisation. 7 Harvey (2003) stresses that the findings of the study cannot be said to be always true, as only a small amount of data was used. 8 In the late 20th century, intellectual ways of thinking were greatly influenced by ideas of gender and race. 3 1.2 Change the words in bold from singular to plural or vice versa, as instructed. Make any other necessary changes to each sentence. 1 There's an interesting PhD thesis on water resources in the library, (make plural) 2 What were your main criteria in designing your survey? (make singular) 3 She was interested in strange phenomena connected with comets, (make singular) 4 The hypothesis was never proved, as the data were incomplete, (make plural) 3 1.3 Match the beginning of each sentence with the most appropriate ending. 1 We must never accept the notion on the role of the United Nations in times of war. 2 The task of choosing an analytical on gender and language use very clear. 3 The book expresses his viewpoint of dark matter to explain certain observations. 4 Tannen has always made her stance that intelligence is connected to race. 5 Consumers have different perceptions of family healthcare which changed everything. 6 The report laid out a new model of what low price and high quality mean. 7 Physicists developed the concept framework is an important stage in any research. 3 1.4 Read the text and then answer the questions. Use a dictionary if necessary. § Autonomy and creativity are two key concepts in the humanities which are often thought to be not part of scientific thinking. However, recent projects in the sciences suggest this is not true. For example, the attempt to load the components of human consciousness into a computer is a fundamentally creative activity which has profound implications for our understanding of what a human being is. Such science may make us change our way of thinking about moral and philosophical questions and may make it possible for those in the humanities to find a new grounding for their own work. 1 Which noun means 'independence / the right to think in one's own way'? 2 Which noun means the opposite of 'the sciences'? 3 Which adjective means 'felt or experienced very strongly or in an extreme way'? 4 What are the noun forms of think and understand used in this text? 5 Which adjective in the text means 'relating to standards of good or bad behaviour, what is right and wrong, etc.'? 6 Which noun in the text means the same as 'foundation/basis'? Choose five words that you particularly want to learn from this unit and write sentences using them in relation to your own discipline. Academic Vocabulary in Use 71 32 Reporting what others say Reporting verbs Reporting what others say is a key aspect of academic English and you need a range of verbs to do this in an appropriate and varied way. Note the structures used with each verb. In her latest article Morton explains how information technology is changing society. Schmidt describes the process of language change. Kon suggests that all poets are strongly influenced by their childhood, [says indirectly or tentatively] Lee states that problems arose earlier than was previously thought, [says directly] Uvarov claims/asserts/contends/maintains/declares that the causes of the revolution can be traced back to the 18th century, [says something is true directly and firmly, often used when others disagree] Van Ek implies that other historians have misinterpreted the period, [suggests indirectly] Patel argues that governments should continue to fund space research, [use of this verb suggests he gives reasons for his view] Greenberg emphasises/highlights/stresses the importance of taking a liberal approach, [gives particular importance to] Levack observes/notes/comments/points out that there are contradictions in Day's interpretation of the poem, [states but does not develop at length] Kim demonstrates/shows how Bach's music draws considerably on earlier composers' work. Gray proves there is a link between obesity and genes, [shows that something must be true] In the book Dean mentions some new research in the field, [refers to briefly] Mcintosh pinpoints the key features of the period in question, [focuses in on] Vaz advances/puts forward/proposes a new theory, [used with idea, theory, hypothesis] Davidson casts doubt on previous research in the field, [suggests it is inaccurate] Gerhard questions previous interpretations of the play, [expresses doubts about] Reporting nouns Academic writing also frequently uses nouns rather than verbs to report others' ideas (see Unit 1). Notice the corresponding nouns for some verbs in A. Note how these nouns often head long phrases (underlined below) which can be either the subject or the object of the verb. Morton provides an explanation as to how information technology is changing society. Schmidt gives a description of the process of language change. Kon's suggestion that poets are influenced by their childhood is uncontroversial. Lee's statement that problems arose earlier than previously thought has been challenged. Uvarov's claim/assertion/contention that the causes of the revolution can be traced back to the 18th century is worth considering in some depth. Van Ek's implication that other historians have misinterpreted the period has caused some controversy, [suggests indirectly] Patel's argument that governments should continue to fund space research is convincing. Greenberg's emphasis/stress on the importance of taking a liberal approach is not new. Levack's observation that there are contradictions in Day's interpretation of the poem has been supported by a number of other scholars. Kim's demonstration of the way in which Bach's music draws on the work of earlier composers is fascinating. Gray's proof of the link between obesity and genes is of considerable interest. %f According to is used when reporting others' viewpoints rather than one's own. For example, according to Greene and Willis ... but in my opinion ... NOT according to me. 72 Academic Vocabulary in Use Exercises 32.1 Fill in the missing verbs and nouns. noun verb noun verb implication describe observe statement argument emphasise assertion explain contend demonstration 32.2 Rewrite the sentences using nouns instead of the verbs in bold and beginning as shown. 1 Harkov contends that continued population growth will be a more serious problem than global warming, but this is not accepted by many scientists. (Harkov's ...) 2 'Global symmetry' states that the laws of physics take the same form when expressed in terms of distinct variables. ('Global symmetry' is ...) 3 The report implies that no individual government will ever be able to control the internet. (The report makes ...) 4 Dudas demonstrates how dangerous genetic modification might be. (Dudas provides ...) 5 Groot emphasises the role of schools in preventing teenage drug abuse. (Groot puts ...) 6 Lenard observes that women use expressions such as 'you know' in English more than men but this was later proved to be inaccurate. (Lenard's ...) 7 Plana explained the possible origins of the pyramids in Guelcoga but this has been disputed by Ruiz. (Plana's ...) 8 Wilson describes the ancient alphabet of the Guelcoga people. (Wilson gives ...) 9 Wu argues that daylight-saving time should be extended throughout the year. (Wu puts ...) 10 The President asserts that he cares about fighting poverty. (The President makes ...) 32.3 In each sentence two of the options in italics are possible and one is not. Which is not? 1 The author notes I observes I pinpoints that commodity prices change depending on the season. 2 Grey puts forward I proves I advances a controversial theory to explain climate change. 3 Philipson claims I questions I challenges the accuracy of Malwar's figures. 4 Trakov stresses I emphasises I asserts the importance of pilot testing before carrying out a survey. 5 Ripoll advances I demonstrates I shows how large-scale urban planning can go wrong. 6 Thompson's assertion I contention I description that no member of the committee was informed of the director's plan is incorrect. 7 Evans declared I cast doubt I maintained there was no causal link between the events. 32.4 There is one mistake in each of these sentences. Find and correct it. 1 According to me, courses in academic writing should be compulsory for all new students. 2 It has not yet been proof that the virus can jump from species to species. 3 Richardson emphasises on a number of weaknesses in the theory. 4 Taylor mentions to several studies which have looked at the problem in the past. 5 Pratt's suggest that the poet may have suffered from depression is an interesting one. 6 Our latest results cast doubt to our original hypothesis. Ettj Find some examples of reporting what others say in an academic article or textbook in your Efl own field. Do they use language from this unit? Copy out any interesting examples. Academic Vocabulary in Use 73 Analysis of results Analysis in academic texts Academic texts often include sections which deal with the analysis of data. In analysing a social or political issue, the writer may need to come to / reach a conclusion about the advantages and disadvantages of a particular course of action1. The writer may, for instance, conclude that the benefits outweigh2 the drawbacks3 or vice versa. An analysis may be a matter of weighing up4 both sides of an argument, taking into account all the relevant aspects5 of the issue and discussing all the points6 raised by the research. When analysing the results of a scientific experiment, the writer is likely to need to take account of a range of variables7. In their analysis scientists try to deduce8 as much as they can from their data, drawing conclusions that are soundly9 based on their results. 1 way ol doing something 2 are of more importance than 3 disadvantages 4 think carefully about 5 (of a problem or situation) parts, features 6 idea, opinion or piece of information that has been presented in relation to the topic 7 number, amount or aspect of a situation which can change 8 reach an answer by thinking carefully about the known facts 9 completely, firmly Weighing up results In the text in A did you notice an interesting metaphorical use of language - the image of weighing up ideas and of considering whether advantages outweigh disadvantages? Arguments are, as it were, placed on each side of the scales and the judge or jury then have to come down on one side or the other. A particularly strong argument may tip the scales in favour of one side. Noticing how language can be used metaphorically may help you to extend the use of the words you know. Make a note of any examples that you come across and try to find other examples of language based round the same metaphor. Sentences relating to analyses The survey provided some useful insights into the problem, [points that help us to understand more clearly] The results point to an interesting trend, [show, indicate] On the basis of our data we would predict continuing social unrest, [say something will happen in the future] We found that women constitute 40% of the workforce, [account for] We began with a critical review of the literature in the field, [giving opinions] Most of our respondents were critical of the new law. [not pleased with, negative about] We are reaching a critical period in terms of global climate change, [very important] The patient is in a critical condition, [serious] deeply critical = very negative absolutely critical = extremely important BRemember how English words often have several distinct meanings. Note examples as you meet them. 74 Academic Vocabulary in Use Exercises 33.1 Complete the expressions with a word which can combine with the words given. r—moment — review I— comments come to —, draw reach come down on one —, a............................. be in favour of one — see both —' .............................(s) of an argument 33.2 33.3 33.5 Now complete the sentences with a word from 33.1. 1 You should write a......................................review of the literature at the start of your dissertation. 2 It is difficult to reach a......................................without a lot more data. 3 A good essay presents both......................................of an argument and evaluates them properly. Complete these extracts using words from the opposite page. You are given the first letters of the missing words to help you. Which is better the night before an exam? To study longer and get less sleep or to study less and sleep longer? After w......................................up the evidence scientists have come to the c.................................that the advantages of getting more sleep o................................the d....................................... Research has provided i........... into the link between sleep and memory development, suggesting that sleep is essential for memory. But there are many v.................................to t.............................account of in sleep and memory research, such as dreaming, phases of sleep and types of memories. Dreams c.....................................about 25% of a typical eight-hour sleep, but research p.....................................to a connection between memory development and non-dreaming sleep time. When considering energy conservation, we have to t ............................i............................. account various r......................................factors. But how do we relate a particular c..................................of action to its outcome? For example, flying from London to Paris instead of taking the train is quicker but causes more pollution. You opt to cycle to work instead of driving in order to avoid adding to pollution. What can we d............................... from the evidence? Do our individual choices make a difference? On the b................................. of global data we can p......................................that climate change will increase, but how much do personal choices affect the big picture? Could my choice to buy a second car tip the s......................................and cause a global catastrophe? L 33.4 What does critical - or one of its related forms - mean in each sentence? 1 The hospital announced that the President remains critically ill. 2 Dixon was asked to write a critical review (or critique) of contemporary Irish poetry. 3 The writer was imprisoned for his open criticism of the government. 4 It is absolutely critical all measurements are recorded every hour. Look at these sentences and underline any metaphorical uses of language. Explain them in your own words. Use a dictionary if necessary. 1 A recent survey has unearthed some interesting facts about commuting habits. 2 In predicting trends in inflation, economists often look at which direction the political winds are blowing. 3 Martins published a ground-breaking study of the formation of galaxies. 4 By digging into the archives, Professor Robinson was able to shed important new light on the history of the period. Academic Vocabulary in Use 75 Talking about meaning A The importance of meaning Academic study in any subject inevitably requires precision with regard to the meanings of the terms1 used. Many textbooks provide a glossary2 of the terminology3 of the subject and this should be referred to frequently, whenever the meaning of some new term is not transparent4. Often there are subtle distinctions5 between the way in which a word is used in a non-academic context and the way in which it is used in a specific academic discipline and the student needs to be able to distinguish between these different senses6 of the same word. When writing an essay or an article it is often appropriate to begin by defining7 the key words relating to the topic. If this is not done then the reader may find the writing ambiguous8 and may misinterpret9 the text. In lectures, too, the audience will require the lecturer to clarify what they are saying by providing a definition of any unfamiliar terms. This is essential if the lecturer is to communicate their meaning in a clear and coherent10 way. 1 words or expressions used in relation to meaning 5 small differences 6 meanings to a specific context 2 list of words with 7 explaining the meaning of 8 having more explanations of their meanings 3 special words than one possible meaning 9 understand in the or expressions used in relation to a specific wrong way 10 carefully organised and making subject 4 clear, often used when referring sense The power of words Writers may use words to express ideas or to convey a message1 or to evoke2 an atmosphere3. In scientific discourse4, if words are not used precisely, then it is hard for the reader to comprehend5 what the writer is trying to say. In literature, especially in poetry, the connotations6 that words have may be at least as important if not more important than what those words denote7. The reader has to infer8 the poet's meaning and this may involve a sensitivity to nuances of meaning9 and the ability to see things from the poet's perspective10. 1 key idea (e.g. in a book or film) 2 make someone feel something 3 feeling or mood 4 written or spoken text 5 understand 6 associations 7 mean 8 form an opinion on the basis of indirect evidence 9 small differences in meaning 10 point of view Use prefixes to help you work out the meaning of some words that initially look unfamiliar. For example, the prefix mis- carries the idea of wrongly or badly as in misinterpret/ misinterpretation. Other examples include mistranslate/mistranslation and mispronounce/ mispronunciation. (See Reference 5.) Academic Vocabulary in Use Exercises 34.1 Dr Babayan is advising Tomoko, one of his students who is about to start writing up her dissertation. Complete their conversation with words from the opposite page. Dr Babayan: In the first chapter, you need a section where you d......................................your t...................................... Tomoko: I'm sorry, what does that involve exactly? Dr Babayan: You explain your t......................................, the special technical words or phrases you're going to use and what precise meaning they have so that your text is t......................................, and every reader knows exactly what you mean when you use a word or phrase. Tomoko: Does it have to be in the first chapter? Dr Babayan: Well, usually, yes, though an alternative way of doing it is to provide an alphabetical g.....................................at the back of the dissertation where readers can look up the meaning. And remember, if you're using different s......................................of the same word you must explain each one. Tomoko: That's my problem. I sometimes find it difficult to d......................................between the different meanings. There are so many s......................................d......................................between words and between the different meanings of the same words in English. Dr Babayan: Yes, I know, but all languages are like that; it's just that you don't notice it in your own language. Look, a dissertation is all about c......................................your ideas in a clear, c......................................manner. If you use words which are a......................................, your readers might m......................................your text. So it's always important to c......................................what you intend to say. Tomoko: Hmm. Oh well, I'll try. 34.2 Add negative prefixes to the words in bold, using a dictionary if necessary. 1 The sign had been....................translated, so no one could understand what it meant. 2 I....................understood one of the exam questions and wrote about the wrong subject. 3 The text was quite....................ambiguous, so there was only one way of interpreting it. 4 Some of the totals had evidently been....................calculated, so the results were unreliable. 5 The essay was quite........ ........coherent, so it was almost impossible to follow the argument. 6 Sandra is good at French but...................pronounces a lot of words. 34.3 Use the words from the box in an appropriate form to complete the text. denote perspective express comprehend evoke nuance discourse convey infer connotation ■■■■Hi 'And it's a hard rain's a-gonna fall' The American songwriter Bob Dylan is often considered to be as much a poet as a musician. He......................................his political ideas through folk songs in his early period. His melodies were often simple but his words......................................complex messages, often with subtle....................................... In one of his songs, he speaks of a 'hard rain' which will fall after a nuclear war. On one level the words............................. real, radioactive rain, but the......................................of the words are many: life will be hard, perhaps impossible. Perhaps the consequences will fall hard on the politicians who started the war too. There are many things we can....................................from these words. The song is part of the political.................................of the Cold War of the 1960s. It .............................an atmosphere of fear and hopelessness. Seen from the.................................... of the post-Cold-War era, it may seem difficult to............................such fear, but at the time, that fear was very real. Academic Vocabulary in Use 77 Research and study aims Expressing aims word example comment deliberate We took the deliberate decision to keep our = intentional; is often used for study small. something negative goal have something as a goal, achieve your goal we don't usually say 'reach your goal' intention with the intention of -ing, have no intention of -ing verb = intend followed by the infinitive motive motive for -ing [reason] verb = motivate; more general noun = motivation objective meet'/achieve objectives = what you plan to do or achieve priority top priority, take priority over implies a list of important things purpose Our purpose was to test our theory. on purpose means deliberately strategy Their strategy was to proceed slowly. detailed plan for success target reach/achieve/attain a target = level or situation you hope to achieve 1 we also talk about meeting criteria An example of a mission statement Look at this web page for the Centre of Research into Creation in the Performing Arts. Note how the aims are expressed through the infinitive and in formal language. eee MISSION STATEMENT1 ResCen exists to further2 the understanding of how artists research and develop new processes and forms, by working with professional artists and others. AIMS To establish3 new understandings'4 of creative methods and their application in practice as-research, extending knowledge bases5 in these areas To explore and challenge6 traditional hypothesis-based and critical-analytical research methodologies established within the university To establish a critical mass7 of artist-researchers, meeting regularly, to instigate8 and inform9 new creative work across disciplines To provide an infrastructure10 for practice-led and artist-informed postgraduate study within the university To further develop criteria" for the definition and evaluation of creative practice-as-research, as part of the wider national debate To contribute to the development of a national infrastructure supporting practice-as-research, at the interface12 between academic and other centres of art-making and its study 7 1 short written statement of the aims of an organisation 2 move forward, advance 3 encourage people to accept 4 understanding can be used as a countable noun in this context s the basic knowledge shared by everyone working in the areas 6 question 7 influential number 8 initiate, cause to start 9 provide knowledge that can influence 10 basic systems and support services 11 standards; singular = criterion 12 place where two things come together and affect each other 78 Academic Vocabulary in Use Exercises 35.1 Rewrite the sentences using words and expressions from the opposite page and beginning as shown. 1 Protecting the privacy of our subjects must take priority over absolutely everything else. (We must give ...) 2 Our intention in designing the questionnaire was to make it as simple as possible to answer. (We designed the questionnaire with ...) 3 We aimed to define and evaluate a new approach to urban planning. (We had as our goal the ...) 4 I did not intend to become a scientist when I began my studies. (I had no ...) 5 A methodology based on a hypothesis does not work in some cases. (A hypothesis- ...) 6 Our project is located in the area where sociology and psychology meet. (Our project is located at ...) Read these descriptions of their research by academics and then answer the questions. Use a dictionary for any unknown words. Dr Janeja (in a lecture): 'We wanted to see if we could explain the fact that the expansion of the universe is accelerating.' Dr Finstein (in an introduction to an article): 'Our research questioned the notion that larger mammals only appeared long after the dinosaurs had died out.' Prof. Li (in a lecture): 'We carefully restricted our sample to people born within ten kilometres of the lake.' Prof. Simons (in a lecture): 'We wanted to build on existing research and offer new insights into the effects of stress.' Dr Andreas (in a conference presentation): 'We really wanted to put into practice some of the research on e-learning to improve our present system.' Prof. Horza (in an article): 'We were hoping to instigate a new type of investigation.' Dr Tadeus (in a conference presentation): 'We had no detailed plan at the outset; things developed as we went along.' 1 Whose team took a deliberate decision to do something? 2 Whose team wanted to further the understanding of something? 3 Whose team did not have a strategy for their research? 4 Who wanted to start something that had not existed before? 5 Whose team was interested in the application of something? 6 Whose purpose was it to establish a reason for something? 7 Whose research challenged an existing idea? 35.3 Answer the questions about the vocabulary in this unit. 1 What word can we use to refer to the basic support services and systems of a country? 2 What phrase can we use if everyone in a country seems to be discussing an issue? 3 What is another word for academic subjects? 4 What phrase means 'the basic knowledge of an academic field'? 5 How could the phrase the place where theory meets practice be reworded? 6 What verbs are typically used with (a) objective and (b) target} 7 What are the two noun forms connected with the verb motivate} 8 What is the opposite of theory-led research? Go to the website for a course or institution that you are interested in.What does it state on its Ell Aims page? Note any interesting language there. Acodemic Vocabulary in Use 79 35.2 § 36 Talking about points of view Commenting on others' views No one can be completely objective1 in their point of view. Inevitably, we all see things to some extent subjectively2. It is impossible to be truly impartial3. We tend to be biased in favour of4 things we're familiar with and prejudiced against5 things we have little experience of. Of course, everyone believes their own views are totally rational6. 1 not influenced by personal beliefs or attitudes, based only on facts 2 influenced by personal beliefs or attitudes 3 uninfluenced by personal beliefs or attitudes 4 showing an unreasonable liking for something based on personal beliefs or opinions; opposite = biased against 5 showing an unreasonable dislike for, based on personal beliefs or opinions (stronger and more pejorative than biased); opposite = prejudiced in favour of 6 based only on reason; opposite = irrational People's views tend to change as they grow older and begin looking at life from a different standpoint7. Young people are more likely to be radical8 but then become more reactionary9 or conservative10 with age, considering their younger opinions immature". 7 set of principles or beliefs on the basis of which opinions are formed 8 believing that there should be extreme political or social change 9 (disapproving) opposed to political or social change or new ideas 10 not inclined to trust change, especially if it is sudden 11 (disapproving) lacking in experience; opposite = mature An ideology is a theory or set of beliefs or principles, particularly one on which a political system or organisation is based. It often has slightly negative associations in English, implying something that is rigid and restricting. A philosophy, on the other hand, suggests a set of beliefs that is much more thoughtful and serious. Word combinations relating to points of view word combination example meaning to hold views My grandfather holds some surprisingly progressive views. has opinions to adopt/take a stance It is important that the university should adopt a principled stance towards research. take a position to change/shift your position Luisa was initially totally opposed to the idea but she has slightly shifted her position. changed her point of view a little have ethical objections to Increasing numbers of people have ethical objections to the war. dislike for reasons relating to morality the principles underlying Treat others as you would like to be treated' is a principle underlying much religious teaching. basic idea lying behind to encounter prejudice As one of the few female students of the 1920s, my grandmother encountered a certain amount of prejudice. experienced unreasonable negative behaviour deep-rooted prejudice John does not share his father's deep-rooted prejudices against women. strong, unreasonably negative views You can say in my opinion but NOT in my point of view.You can say from (someone's) point of view but it means from that persons way of looking at something rather than in that persons opinion. From the language teacher's point of view, it's good that all children have to learn a foreign language at school. 80 Academic Vocabulary in Use Exercises 36.1 Change the words in bold to words which mean the opposite. 1 The views she expressed were totally rational. 2 The committee seemed to be biased against applications from younger people. 3 The book is an objective account of life in a small town in the 1920s. 4 The club rules were prejudiced in favour of children. 5 The President's daughter was quite mature for her age. 6 He has rather radical views about marriage. 7 Her views on education are rather radical, (use a different word from 6) 8 Supreme Court judges always act in a biased way. 36.2 Use the words in the box in an appropriate form to complete the sentences. root shift adopt encounter underlie philosophy hold ethical 1 The......................................principles of Asian and European...................................are very similar. 2 People tend.....................................a more conservative stance as they get older. 3 She has always......................................the view that primary education should not start before the age of seven. 4 Many people have......................................objections to investing in companies which support corrupt regimes. 5 Some employers still have a deep-.....................................prejudice against employing older people, and many older people......................................such prejudice when they apply for jobs. 6 The government seems to have......................................its position recently. 36.3 Answer the questions. 1 What verb could be used instead of shifted in exercise 36.2? 2 What verb could be used instead of adopt in exercise 36.2? 3 Which is incorrect: (a) in my point of view, (b) in my opinion, (c) from my point of view? 4 In what way does calling something an ideology make it sound slightly more negative than calling it a philosophy? 5 What single noun is formed from the noun point and the verb stand} 36.4 Vary these sentences by rewriting them using the word in brackets. 1 The people of the area have some unusual views about nature, (hold) 2 Most young people seem not to like the proposals on student fees. (objections) 3 Examiners tend to prefer candidates with clear handwriting. (biased) 4 Girls look at their careers in a different way from their mothers. (standpoint) 5 Let us now discuss the principles behind this approach, (underlying) 36.5 Read this short text and underline any words and phrases connected with points of view, opinions and ideas. Look them up in a dictionary if necessary and note them in your vocabulary book. Academics have traditionally taken the view that their discipline is intellectually independent from all others. However, inter-disciplinary degrees are becoming more and more common, suggesting that preconceptions about what and how one should study may be somewhat misplaced. A more liberal view of education would advocate greater freedom to explore the links between different fields of learning, thus pushing the frontiers of knowledge in new and exciting directions. Many academics now feel that the future lies in this blending of ideas and the cross-fertilisation of thought which emerges from it. Academic Vocabulary in Use 81 Degrees of certainty This unit looks at the ways writers express how certain they are about the facts or opinions they are presenting. This unit deals with some vocabulary which will help you to handle certainty in academic writing appropriately. A Being tentative It is a common mistake for students to present something as a proven fact when it is actually an opinion. In a serious piece of academic writing you should not, for example, write Girls are better at learning languages than boys; you could write, instead, There is some evidence to suggest that girls may be better at learning languages than boys or It can be argued that girls are better at learning languages than boys. Here are some other expressions that are useful when presenting ideas that may be true but are not proven facts. It may not be the case that girls are naturally better at foreign languages. It would seem/appear that girls are more interested in languages than boys. We can presume that all humans have the ability to learn a second language, [believe something to be true because it seems very likely] There appears/seems to be some evidence linking diet with language ability. There is some evidence that previous studies are unreliable. We can draw the tentative conclusion that early language skills determine how successful a child will be at school, [possible, not yet certain] B It is true or almost certainly true It is undoubtedly true that language ability is not simply a matter of intelligence, [without doubt, certainly] It is, of course, essential to check data carefully, [shows the writer sees this as obvious] It is evident that girls and boys develop at slightly different rates, [obvious, clear] The best age for language learning is, apparently, the teenage years. Pronunciation of unfamiliar sounds presumably comes more easily to young children. The research is likely to lead to some interesting results. = The research will probably lead to some interesting results. Boys tend to have better practical skills than girls, [are likely to] There is a tendency for boys to be more enthusiastic about team sports than girls, [it is often the case that] There is every likelihood that the research will be completed by June, [it is probable] The situation is liable to change, [may change, is likely to change] C The writer is unsure The research has allegedly come to some very significant conclusions, [it is claimed; the use of this adverb suggests that the writer does not believe the claims are true] Boys are considered to be more inclined to take risks than girls, [people think that - the implication is that the writer may not agree] The perception of boys as poor language learners can be shown to be false, [common view, often one which the writer feels is inappropriate in some way] The article is reportedly an excellent piece of work [it is reported that; the use of the adverb makes it clear the writer has not seen the article] In the absence of evidence to the contrary we can assume that Laing is correct, [as there is no evidence to suggest the opposite] Academic Vocabulary in Use Exercises 37.1 Match the beginning of each sentence with the most appropriate ending. 1 We may assume that the exchange rate will continue to fluctuate. 2 It would seem not to be the case that all the questions were answered honestly. 3 Of course it to appear from all the findings that the test is reliable. 4 We can certainly well discover that the problem was caused by overheating. 5 It may well turn out argued that conflict was inevitable after the events of recent years. 6 It could be is true that not all factories cause huge amounts of pollution. 37.2 Insert adverbs based on the words in italics into suitable places in the sentences. 1 Russo was a member of a terrorist organisation, but it was never proved, allege 2 At that time, the population of tigers was widespread in the region, report 3 The collapse of the roof caused a sprinkler system pipe to burst, appear 4 To get a better job is a main motivation for going on to higher education, presume 5 We may conclude that water shortages are likely to increase rather than decrease. tentative 6 The students were guessing some of the answers instead of using their knowledge of the context, evidence 37.3 Complete the missing forms in the table. Use a dictionary if necessary. Do not fill the shaded boxes. 0 noun verb adjective adverb tend evidence seem likely perceive 37.4 37.5 Change these sentences. Use different forms of the words in bold, as instructed. 1 There is little likelihood that everyone will fail the test, (use the adjective) 2 Students tend to leave preparation for exams till the last minute, (use the noun) 3 We saw evidence that some students had copied each other's answers, (use the adjective) 4 People commonly perceive that older people cannot learn musical instruments to a professional standard, (use the noun) 5 The melting of the polar ice caps seems to be inevitable, (use the adverb) Make the sentences more formal by replacing the underlined words or phrases. 1 People generally think that rats are carriers of diseases. 2 There isn't much evidence to support the opinion that diesel cars cause more pollution than petrol cars. 3 It is extremely likely that rail passenger numbers will continue to decline. 4 In the absence of other evidence, we must conclude that right-handedness is not linked to intelligence in any way. 5 Of course, it is true that engineering graduates are in increasing demand. 6 The area near the river often floods in winter. Look at a recent article reporting on some research in your own discipline. Can you find any examples of the kind of language discussed in this unit in it? Note down any examples that you find. Academic Vocabulary in Use 83 38 Presenting an argument Developing an argument: what it is about Read these extracts from the opening paragraphs of student essays. Note the prepositions. This essay is based on findings from recent research into cold fusion. The arguments I shall put forward are relevant to our understanding of Newton's laws. For the purposes of this essay, two opposing theories will be scrutinised. I shall refer to Ashbach's and Lirtn's work, respectively. Many articles have been published on the subject of genetic modification of crops. The political arguments concerning population control are beyond the scope of this essay. The first section reviews recent literature, with reference to the arguments concerning economic policy. Adding points to an argument Bad diet and high stress levels, as well as lack of exercise, are key factors in causing heart disease; on top of which there is smoking, which is one of the most damaging factors. In addition to the questionnaire, we also conducted interviews with some of the subjects. A further argument in support of raising the retirement age is that life expectancy is increasing. Moreover/Furthermore1, many people enjoy working; for example / for instance2, in a recent survey, 68% of people said they would like to work till they were at least 70. 1 moreover is much more frequently used in academic style than furthermore 2 for example is much more frequently used in academic style than for instance Qualifying: limiting and specifying an argument Dr O'Malley is leading a class discussion on human rights. O'Malley: OK. 'Human rights are rights which you possess simply because you are human.' To what extent can we say that? What are the pros and cons1 of this view? Anna: Well, I think it's too simplistic, in the sense that2 it ignores the rights of victims and everyone else's right to life. So, provided that we remember this, then we can give people basic rights, albeit3 with limitations. Kirsten: Mm, that's all very well, but4 if you say human rights depend on, say, government decisions about national security, then they're no longer rights, are they? They become privileges. Having said that5, it's a complex issue with no simple answer. Even so, I still think we must be careful not to give our rights away. O'Malley: OK. Fine. Apart from victim's rights, are there other arguments for restricting rights? I mean we could look at protecting property, ending a chronically sick person's life, and so on / and so forth6. Let's talk about the degree/extent to which these are relevant. Ricardo: Every sick person has the right to life, but at the same time we should be free to decide when we want to die. O'Malley: Well, a lot of sick people can't make that decision for themselves, despite the fact that we may respect their right to a dignified death. Ricardo: Hmm. Nevertheless/Nonetheless7,1 think it's a key issue. ' (slightly informal) advantages and disadvantages 2 used to explain precisely what has just been said 3 (formal) although 4 (informal, typical of spoken contexts) indicates a partial agreement, followed by a disagreement 5 (typical of spoken contexts) said when you wish to add a point which contrasts with what has just been said 6 (typical of spoken contexts) can be used separately or together [and so on and so forth); can also be et cetera (more common in writing - etc.) 7 however; nevertheless is more frequent in academic style than nonetheless AcademicVocabulary in Use Exercises 38.1 Fill in the prepositions in this text about the first wife of Henry VTJJ of England (1491-1547). This essay examines the early life of Catherine of Aragon (1485-1536), focusing particularly ................... the period of her brief marriage (o Prince Arthur, his death at the age of 15 and her subsequent marriage his brother Prince Henry, later to become King Henry VTII of England. .................the purposes .................this essay, I shall pay little attention.............. cither the earlier or the later periods of her life. Her eventual divorce from King Henry is, thus. the scope ..................this essay. Much more has already been written..................the subject....................this later period of her life. The literature reference...................the period is extensive but my essay is largely based................. a couple of key sources, which are particularly relevant................. any discussion of this period, and 1 shall refer________.......these throughout. 38.2 Which word comes next in these phrases? 1 the pros and...................................... 5 that's all very well...................................... 2 at the same...................................... 6 the extent to...................................... 3 and so on and so...................................... 7 in addition...................................... 4 having said...................................... 8 as well...................................... 38.3 Use phrases from the box to replace phrases from the paragraph with the same meaning. nevertheless the degree as well as provided that advantages and disadvantages for instance furthermore There are a number of pros and cons to take into account when considering the purchase of a hybrid (gasoline-electric) car. Such cars are, for example, undoubtedly better for the environment in the sense that they cause less air pollution. Moreover, the extent to which they rely on oil, a natural resource which is rapidly becoming depleted, is much less than is the case with conventional cars. Nonetheless, hybrid cars are not without their problems, Cost may be an issue and also the technical complexity of this relatively new type of engine. As long as you take these factors into account, there is no reason net to buy a hybrid car. 38.4 Choose the correct word or phrase to complete each sentence. 1 She wrote an excellent essay...........with a certain amount of help. A even so B albeit C despite the fact 2 A ................point must also now be made against a change in the law. A furthermore B respective C further 3 He is a great poet....................his work has had a great influence on other writers. A in the sense that B on top of which C provided that 4 Let us now discuss the influence of the revolution on the rich and the poor.................. A say B respectively C moreover 5 The riots resulted in much damage....................., we should not ignore the fact that the disorder brought benefits to some. A As well as B With reference to C Having said that 6 But there is a negative side to new technology. ....................the advantages we also need to consider a number of disadvantages. A Be that as it may B Apart from C That's all very well but Academic Vocabulary in Use 85 Organising your writing Openings Look at these openings from students' written work, and note the items in bold. This assignment will address the problem of socio-economic data in health studies. This dissertation is concerned with individual differences in the ability to connect thoughts and emotions. The aim of this paper is to explore constant acceleration formulae, with a focus on motion along a slope. The purpose of this essay is to investigate the use of focus group interviews. This thesis consists of four parts. Each part describes a different set of experiments which contribute to the final results. This assignment is divided into three sections, with each section devoted to a different aspect of world trade. Organising the main points useful when ... items examples working through a list of different things • first(ly), secondly, thirdly • next • lastly/finally First(ly), let us look at the history of the problem. {firstly is more formal than first] Next, there is the issue of air resistance. Finally, let us consider increased taxation as a possible solution. changing topics / bringing in new points • we now / let us turn to • at this point We now turn to the question of which model provides a better explanation of the phenomenon. At this point it is important to look again at the data. referring forward in the text • below • in the next section • later • the following We shall see below that depopulation has been a major factor, [lower on the page or later in the essay/article] Later, 1 shall look at other possible reasons for this. The following example comes from Hillson (1998). referring back to something • above • in the preceding section • earlier • (as) we saw / have seen that/in The above figures indicate a significant decrease. Three hypotheses were listed in the preceding section, [the section immediately before this one] 1 noted earlier that lack of fresh water was a serious problem. As we saw in section 2, this is a complex topic. referring to examples, diagrams, pages, etc. • see • consider • take, for example, • as can be seen in For the complete results, see Appendix A, page 94. Consider Figure 1, which shows changes from 1976-8. Take, for example, Sweden, where industrialisation was rapid, as can be seen in Figure 2. referring separately to different people or things • respectively • the former • the latter Groups A and B consisted of 14-year-olds and 16-year-olds, respectively, [i.e. group A was 14-year-olds and group B was 16-year-olds] Rostov and Krow both studied the problem.The former wrote a book; the latter published two papers, [the first and then the second person or thing mentioned] Don't confuse firstly) with at first. At first means 'at the beginning', and refers to situations which change: At first there was no increase in temperature, but later, the temperature rose by 0.5°C. See Unit 50 for the difference between lastly and at last. Say as can be seen in Figure I, NOT as ft can be seen in Figure I. See Units 16 and 50 for more useful expressions for organising your writing. Academic Vocabulary in Use Exercises 39.1 Choose a word from A to fill in the missing words in this introduction to a nar>er. The (1)....... of this paper is to consider the nature of moral education in Soviet children's literature. It is particularly (2)....................................with the moral values presented in books published with the (3)....................................of teaching reading at primary school. The thesis (4)....................................of four parts. The first part attempts to (5) .................................a number of general questions relating to children's literature from any historical period. Parts 2, 3 and 4 are (6)...............................specifically to the Soviet example. Part 2 is (7) ....................................into three main sections, the first of which discusses the nature of the Soviet value system with a particular (8) ...............................on the work ethic. 39.2 Read the sentences and answer the questions about them. 1 Tolstoy's most famous novels are War and Peace and Anna Karenina, the former being first published between 1865 and 1869 and the latter between 1875 and 1877. Which of Tolstoy's novels was published in the 1860s? 2 More precise data can be found in Table 3 below. Does Table 3 appear before or after this sentence? 3 Let us now turn to the question of the country's economic situation. Has the writer already begun discussing the country's economic situation or not? 4 The brothers, Olaf and Erik, would go on to become professors of archaeology and Greek, respectively. Which brother taught archaeology? 5 The preceding example is taken from Atakano (1991). Does the example come before or after this sentence? 39.3 Choose the correct word in italics to complete each sentence. 1 Take I Put I Look, for example, the case of Megginson which was described in Chapter 2. 2 At first I Firstly I would like to discuss the nature of 16 century English and then the impact that this had on the works of Shakespeare. 3 The article concerns I devotes I addresses the issue of the relationship between religion and politics in the modern world. 4 Look at Figure 3 under I below I beneath for more detailed information. 5 In the following I preceding section we shall deal with this issue in more detail. 6 For more detailed information see I go I turn Appendix B. 7 Let us now deal I see I consider Figure 2.1. 8 This aspect of the problem will be discussed latter I later I lastly in this article. 39.4 Rewrite the parts in bold using a phrase which includes the word in brackets. 1 As Table V shows there has been an increase in the numbers of students in higher education. (SEEN) 2 In Section 3 we take up again some of the arguments from Section 2. (preceding) 3 Now let us turn our attention to developments in Constantinople, (point) 4 The country consists of six provinces, (divided) 5 Let us now consider the issue of the reunification of Germany, (turn) Academic Vocabulary in Use 87 40 Making a presentation The language of presentations often contains less formal vocabulary than that of academic writing, so take care not to use the less formal expressions in your written work. Introducing the presenter Let's welcome Carmen Gregori, who's going to talk to us today on the subject of 'Healthcare in Paraguay' Now I'd like to call on Mieko to make/give her presentation. Mieko, thank you. OK, thank you everybody. Now, Dr Ulla Fcnsel is going to present her research to us. fl'd like to introduce Dr Li Meiju, who's going to address1 the topic of 'Preventive medicine'. 1 rather formal; we can also say formally speak to the topic ofX, or, less formally talk about X Getting started 'In this presentation I'd like to focus on recent developments in biomass fuels. I'll speak for about 45 minutes, to allow time for questions and comments. Feel free to1 interrupt if you have any questions or want to make a comment.' 'First I'll give a brief overview of the current situation with regard to intellectual property rights, then I'd like to raise a few issues concerning the internet. I'll try to leave2 time for questions at the end.' 'I'd like to begin by looking at some previous studies of ocean temperatures. There's a handout going round3, and there are some spare4 copies here if you want them.' 'In this talk I'll present the results of a study I did5 for my dissertation. I'll try not to go over time and keep to 20 minutes.' 1 an informal way of giving permission 2 less formal than allow - see 1 3 a more formal version would be which is being distributed 4 extra 5 or, more formal, carried out I conducted During the presentation - and closing it Now let's turn to the problem of workplace stress. begin to examine or talk about Moving on, I'd like to look at the questionnaire results in more detail. going on to the next point; less formal than in greater detail 1 also want to talk about the supply of clean water, but I'll come back to that later. or, more formal, return to I'd just like to go back to the graph on the previous slide. or, more formal, return to Anyway, getting back to / to return to the question of inflation, let's look at the Thai economy. getting back to is less formal than ta return to The results were not very clear. Having said that, 1 feel the experiment was worthwhile. a less formal way of saying neverthe/ess I'll skip the next slide as time is (running) short. skip (informal) = leave out / omit To sum up, then, urban traffic has reached a crisis. That's all 1 have to say*. Thank you for listening. have no more time left * informal - not used in writing Well, I'll stop there as I've run out of time.Thank you. have no time left Dr Woichek will now take questions*. Are there any questions or comments? * rather formal = accept and answer questions 88 Academic Vocabulary in Use Exercises 40.1 Fill in the missing words in these introductions to presentations. 1 Dr Anwar Musat will now......................................his research on soil erosion in Malaysian forests. 2 I'd now like to......................................on our next speaker, Eva Karlsson, to......................................{give two answers) her presentation. 3 Ladies and gentlemen, let's......................................our next speaker, Professor Prodromou from the University of Athens. 4 Thanks, everybody. So, Masanori is going to talk to us now............................................................................ subject...................................... 'Mental health issues in Japan'. 5 I'd like to......................................today's speaker, Dr Krishnan Guptar, who is going to...................................... the topic of metal fatigue in rail tracks. 40.2 Rewrite these sentences by changing the words in bold so they are less formal. Remember that both formal and informal styles may be correct, but that it may not always be appropriate to be informal. 1 We need to consider family income too, but I'll return to that later. 2 So, to proceed to the next point, I'll omit item 4 on the handout and instead talk about number 5 in greater detail. 3 I'll try to finish by 3.30, but don't feel you need to ask permission to leave if you have a class or other appointment to go to. 4 There is a handout being distributed and I have some further copies too if anyone wants them. 5 I'll finish there as my time has come to an end. 6 We didn't want to make people uncomfortable by having a camera in the room. Nevertheless, we did want to video as many of the sessions as possible. 7 I'd like to return to a point I made earlier about river management. 8 So, I believe our experiments have been successful. I shall end there. Thank you. 9 To return to the problem of large class sizes, I'd like to look at a study carried out in Australia in 2002. 10 I'll try not to exceed my time, so I'll speak for 30 minutes, to allow time for questions at the end. 40.3 Fill in the missing prepositions. 1 I'd like to focus.............................waterborne diseases in this presentation. 2 The situation.............................regard.............................exports has been very good in recent years. 3 I'd now like to turn.............................a different problem. 4 I always find it difficult to keep.............................just 30 minutes, so please tell me when I have five minutes left. 5 I'd like to begin.............................asking you all to do a small task. 40.4 Write six sentences you might hear during a presentation using appropriate combinations of the words in boxes A and B. You may use words in box A more than once. Box A Box B present take raise make give issue presentation results overview comment questions College and university libraries and departments often have audio or video recordings of talks, guest lectures and other presentations which can be borrowed. If you are able to do this, make a note of any useful words or expressions the speaker uses. AcademicVocabulary in Use 89 Describing research methods Useful word combinations We may carry out a procedure or an experiment or a pilot study, [preliminary study] We use or, more formally, employ a method or a technique or an approach or an instrument or a device, [an object or method used for a special purpose] You can also use or employ any particular type of research methodology. Apparatus [equipment for a lab experiment] is assembled and checked. Apparatus is an uncountable noun but you can talk about a piece of apparatus. B Types of research method research method what the researcher does limitation of method experimental study manipulates1 a variable [anything that can vary] under highly controlled conditions to see if this produces [causes] any changes in a second [dependent] variable done in the highly controlled setting of the laboratory - these conditions are artificial2 and may not reflect what happens in the infinitely more complex real world; other researchers often try to replicate3 successful experiments correlational study attempts to determine the relationship between two or more variables, using mathematical techniques for summarising data only shows that two variables are related in a systematic way, but does not prove or disprove4 that the relationship is a cause-and-effect relationship naturalistic (empirical) observation (also known as field study) observes and records some behaviour or phenomenon5, often over a prolonged period, in its natural setting without interfering with6 the subjects or phenomena in any way can be very time-consuming as researcher may have to wait for some time to observe the behaviour or phenomenon of interest; difficult to observe behaviour without disrupting7 it survey makes inferences from data collected via interviews or questionnaires intentional deception, poor memory, or misunderstanding of the question can all contribute to inaccuracies in the data case study keeps in-depth9 descriptive records, as an outside observer, of an individual or group often involves only a single individual as the subject of the study and this person may not be representative10 of the general group or population 1 makes changes to 2 not natural 3 do in exactly the same way 4 show something is not true 5 something that exists and can be seen, felt, tasted, etc. 6 altering 7 making it change 8 comes to conclusions on the basis of 9 detailed 10 typical Remember that phenomenon is the singular and phenomena is the plural.The same applies to ariterionlcriteria. [a standard by which you judge, decide about or deal with something] See also Unit 31. Academic Vocabulary in Use Exercises 41.1 Complete the sentences in these two texts with words from the opposite page. Scientists disagree as to whether cold fusion, the controlled power of the hydrogen bomb in the laboratory, is possible. In the past, some believed that e.................................s......................................under la................................c...............................using palladium and platinum electrodes could in fact cause heavy hydrogen atoms to fuse into helium and release energy, as the sun does. In carefully controlled experiments, researchers believed they could ma......................................the v.....................................arising from the complexity of the electrodes and other equipment used. In such co......................................CO..................................., they argued, cold fusion was possible. However, attempts to r............................. some of the experiments which claimed to be successful failed, and many now believe that cold fusion is in fact theoretically impossible. Some linguists believe that we can best d how language is processed by laboratory experiments. However, laboratory experiments are by definition ar................. and may not r what happens in the real world. Other linguists believe, therefore, that em......................o ................................is better, and prefer to carry out f............................studies and c.......................... studies of individuals in na . se............................ .In this way, i..........................-d................................data can be c......................................by observers without i.................................... with the process in any way, even though this may be a more t.................-c.......... method. However, individual studies in real situations may not be r...................................of the general p ............ of second language learners. In short, both approaches have their advantages and disadvantages. 4 1.2 Use the words in the box to complete the diagrams. Add a/an and anything else needed to complete the phrase. check methodology pilot study procedure assemble technique experiment device piece carry out employ/use apparatus 4 1.3 Now complete the sentences using phrases from 41.2. 1 It was a new................................of apparatus so we.................................it first and then ...................................it before using it. 2 The team carried out a............................................................................ before conducting the main ......................................to see if the...................................... they were using was reliable. 3 The team needed to employ a different..................................for measuring the pressure, so they used a new......................................which they manufactured in their own laboratory. 41.4 Correct the eight spelling and other vocabulary mistakes in these sentences. 1 It was very difficult to make reliable interferences from the data as we had so little. 2 A correlational study is a good way of seeing if one phenomena is related to another in a system way. 3 The experiment neither proved nor deproved Jessop's theory. 4 We had to explain the unusual scores of five of the subjets in the sample, who all had totals well below the norm. It was possible there were unaccuracies in the data. 5 An exterior observer can often unintentionally erupt the behaviour of the subjects they are observing. Academic Vocabulary in Use 91 Classifying Classifying means dividing things into groups according to their type. Useful nouns when classifying word example meaning category Each of our students falls into one of three categories. a group that shares some significant characteristics component Milk is an essential component of any young child's diet a part which combines with other parts to create something bigger existence The existence of 'dark matter' in the universe was first proposed in 1933. the fact that something or someone is or exists feature Effective use of metaphor is a feature of the poet's style. typical part or quality hierarchy Humans can be described as being at the top of a hierarchy with amoebas on the bottom level. system in which people or things are arranged according to their importance or power nature The nature of her work means that she is under a lot of stress. type or main characteristic of something structure In this unit we shall be looking at the structure of the heart the way in which the parts of a system are arranged type The lion is one type of large cat group with similar characteristics, a smaller division of a larger set One example of a classification system There is an enormous variety/diversity of living things (or organisms). To help study them, biologists have devised1 ways of naming and classifying them according to their similarities and differences. The system most scientists use puts each living thing into seven groups organised from most general to most specific. Therefore, each species belongs to2 a genus, each genus belongs to a family, each family belongs to an order, etc. Species are the smallest groups. A species consists of3 all the animals of the same type who are able to breed and produce young of the same kind; each species is distinct from4 all other species. Biologists allocate5 all organisms to a position in this system. 1 thought of, invented 2 is part of 3 includes, is made up of 4 significantly different from 5 place (also assign) Categorising people When categorising people, it is often necessary to take age, gender1, social class, occupation, marital status and ethnic background2 into account. It may also be appropriate to consider the urban-rural3 dimension4. Age, for example, is important in that different generations tend to have different attitudes and other characteristics. Social class can be described in different ways; the term blue collar may be used to mean working class while white collar denotes5 middle class. The categories of student, homemaker (i.e. housewife/househusband), and senior citizen, as well as types of employment6 are subsumed7 under the heading8 of occupation or occupational background/status. 1 sex, male or female 2 racial background 3 city versus countryside 4 aspect, way of considering something 5 means 6 paid work 7 included as part of a larger group 8 title summing up a group 92 AcademicVocabulary in Use Exercises 42.1 Choose the words to complete these extracts from (1) a lecture and (2) a class. \ belong categories components consist distinct diversity fall feature structure type 'Computer programming languages usually......................................into one of four......................................: imperative, functional, object-oriented and logic. These languages are......................................from one another in how they operate. The......................................of imperative languages is based on commands, you know, "do this, do that thing". Languages such as Fortran and COBOL.................................... to this...................................... Functional languages......................................of mathematical functions. The ......................................of object-oriented languages are commands which are combined with the data to create "objects". The mam.....................................of logic languages is that they state facts or relations between things. Now, in the case of human languages.......................................is considered a good thing. In the case of programming languages, it suggests we still haven't found the best one!' blue collar class devise employment ethnic gender generations homemakers occupational senior citizens 'For your end-of-year project, you must corry out a survey of consumer preferences product or a type of product. You'll need to......................................a questionnaire, and you'll need take a lot of factors into account. These include............................, that is how many males and/c females are in your sample, social................................. , and so on. And also different........................ will it just be adults, or young people too? And what about......................................? They may be retired, but they still buy a lot of things. Also, whot about..........................status? Are you going to separate......................................and white collar workers? Or are you also interested in people who are not in......................................, such as......................................, but who are often the ones who buy the goods? And in our multicultural society, don't forget.................................background.' 42.2 Complete the table. Use a dictionary if necessary. § noun verb adjective adverb .______.. . ...,,...... , similar different allocate describe 42.3 42.4 Now choose a word from 42.2 to complete these sentences. 1 It is hard to...............................between these two...............................plants. They hardly...............................at all. 2 The professor persuaded the university to......................................more resources to his department. 3 There are some magnificent......................................passages in the writer's later novels. 4 In your essay comment on the......................................and the......................................between the two poems. Vary the sentences by using words of similar meaning instead of the words in bold. 1 It is difficult to categorise human emotions as we know little about their basic characteristics. 2 Sensation and action can both be included under the term behaviour. 3 Linguists allocate all languages to a place in the system of language families, based on their grammars and other key aspects. 4 The atmosphere of the planet consists of different gases. 5 City and country people often differ in their political attitudes. Whether one is married or single is also a relevant factor. AcodemicVocabulary in Use 93 43 Making connections Connecting data and evidence Read how a scientist used 14 cameras to study his baby son learning language. In a child's life the progression from just making noises to using words meaningfully is still not completely understood. So an American scientist has collected 24,000 hours of video, complemented1 by 33,000 hours of audio, of his baby son. The scientist hopes computers will reveal links2 between the child's activities and his learning of language. He has divided each room into sections such as sink, table, fridge and stove. The computer picks out combinations of movements between these sections which are Tepeated. Researchers then piece together3 how these fragments correlate with4 specific activities, such as making coffee or doing the dishes. Eventually the computer will bring all the information together and provide statistics on how often the child observed an activity before finally producing a related word. 1 which has made the video better or more useful 2 show connections not seen before 3 try to discover the truth about something by collecting different pieces of information and considering them at the same time 4 are connected with, often in a way in which one of them influences the other Expressing links and connections between people and things Nowadays, the term 'hacker' is synonymous with1 a criminal who attacks computer systems. Originally, the word referred to2 a skilled programmer, and only later did it become associated with3 malicious attacks. In humans and in chimpanzees, hand movements accompanied by speech or vocal sounds are made more often with the right hand than the left hand. Taken together, the data suggest4 that this phenomenon may date back as far as 5 million years ago. In the 1980s, the wages of less-skilled US workers fell relative to5 those of more-skilled workers. The mutual6 influence of the inflow of less-skilled immigrants and the growth in US imports is also important. Scientists have found evidence of an animal that can shrink and then grow again. Galapagos marine iguanas seem to change size, growing smaller or larger, possibly reflecting changes in the food supply. The book examines the development of the bond7 between children and their parents. The relationship between individual development and the strength of the bond varies between sons and daughters. In questionnaire A, zero corresponds to 'disagree strongly' and 5 indicates 'agree strongly'. In questionnaire B, the reverse8 is true, in that9 5 is equivalent to 'disagree strongly'. 1 the two are so closely connected that one suggests the other 2 related to 3 connected in people s minds 4 show an idea without stating it directly or giving proof 5 if something is relative to something else, it varies according to the speed or level of the other thing 6 influencing each other 7 close connection 8 opposite 9 used before giving an explanation for something The prefix inter- indicates a link or relationship between things (see Reference 5). Interaction10 between learner and learning material is a defining characteristic of education. He studied the interrelated" effects of families and peers on African-American youths. The article is concerned with the interplay12 between emotions and logical thinking. 10 communication with or reaction to 11 connected in such a way that each thing has an effect on or depends on the other 12 the effect two or more things have on each other Academic Vocabulary in Use Exercises 43.1 Match the beginning of each sentence with the most appropriate ending, and add the missing prepositions. 1 The study found links ....................gentle curves and sharp angles. 2 Jill's thoroughness is complemented ....................scholars from all over the world. 3 Musical talent correlates ....................information from a range of sources. 4 The sculpture is an unusual combination ....................his previous research. 5 The conference has brought ....................a computer programmer. 6 The researcher is trying to piece ....................use of the drug and heart problems. 7 Peter's study is closely related ....................her co-researcher's originality. 8 The term 'hacker' used to refer ....................mathematical ability. 43.2 Correct the errors in these sentences. 1 There is usually a very strong bind between a mother and her child. 2 Salaries have fallen over the last few years not in real terms but relating to inflation. 3 In the UK black cats are associating with good luck. 4 In the experiment, group A performed best on the manual dexterity test and least well on the memory test whereas for group B the reversal was the case. 5 'Malicious' is more or less synonym with 'nasty'. 6 The problems discussed above are all closely interrelationship. 7 Took together, the studies by Johnson and Mahesh provide very strong evidence that previous theories on the nature of this disease were flawed. 8 The research is original in this it approaches the topic from a completely fresh angle. 9 The painter loved to explore the interplaying between light and shade. 43.3 Choose words from the box to fill in the missing words in this text. associated corresponds equivalent evidence suggest interaction mutual reflects relationships reveals ......................................within a chimpanzee community is the theme of Gavros's fascinating new book. It describes the various different......................................between the animals, and .....................................how an individual's behaviour...................................his or her position in the community, showing how the older females in particular offer each other................................ support. The book also provides.................................to.....................................that chimpanzees use sounds in systematic ways to communicate with each other. One particular sound, for example, clearly.....................................to the human cry of 'Watch out!' while another would seem to be the.................................. of 'Help!' Certain gestures also seem to be.................................... with specific meanings. 43.4 Here are some more examples of words beginning with inter-. Use your knowledge of what this prefix means to help you explain what the words mean. 1 Alf won a prize in an inter-university chess competition. 2 Interstate highways in the USA are usually wide and well-maintained. 3 Our economic interdependence means that recession in the US also affects us. 4 Intermarriage throughout the centuries had meant that most European monarchs at the beginning of the twentieth century were quite closely related. 5 The internet has enormously facilitated the interchange of information between scholars worldwide. 6 The design was a complicated construction of interconnecting parts. Academic Vocabulary in Use 95 44 Comparing and contrasting Prepositional expressions Note the items in bold in these titles of journal articles and also note the prepositions. express/on notes Problems in pain measurement a comparison between verbal and visual rating scales Between is used when two different things are being compared. Of is used when different examples of the same thing are being compared. A comparison of different methods and approaches to homeschooling Mobility in the EU in comparison with the US With and to are both used nowadays with similar meanings in these expressions. American English generally prefers compared with. The effects of risk on private investment: Africa compared with other developing areas An exploration of the average driver's speed compared to driver safety and driving skill Reduced rate of disease development after HIV-2 infection as compared to HIV-I This expression indicates that there is indeed a difference between the things which are compared. Some psycho-physical analogies between speech and music Comparisons between things which have similar features; often used to help explain a principle or idea. Differences and similarities between mothers and teachers as informants on child behaviour Between is used with difference when different groups of people or things are compared. In is used when different aspects of one thing are compared (here 'ethical perceptions'). Differences in ethical standards between male and female managers: myth or reality? Children's understanding of the distinction between real and apparent emotion A distinction is a difference between two similar things. Is globalisation today really different from globalisation a hundred years ago? Different to is also used in UK academic usage, but different from is much more frequent Different wan is often found in US English. Useful linking expressions for comparison and contrast 44% of the male subjects responded negatively. Similarly, 44% of the female subjects said they had never voted in any election, [likewise could also be used here] There is a contrast between fiction and reality. Older teenagers were found to be more likely than younger teenagers to purchase music CDs. Conversely, younger teenagers purchased more video games, [in an opposite way] Unlike Scotland, Irish mortality rates were relatively low for such a poor country. Verb endings in some languages can show present, past or future tense, whereas in English, verb endings can only show present or past, [while could also be used here; note the comma] A recent study suggested that building a network of good friends, rather than maintaining close family ties, helps people live longer into old age. On the one hand, critics accuse the police of not protecting the public from crime. On the other hand, people also complained that the police were too oppressive, [used to compare two different facts or two opposite ways of thinking about a situation] In the north, the rains are plentiful. In the south the reverse is true and drought is common. Remember to say the same as, NOT the same that or the same than. Say similar to, NOT similar as. Don't confuse on the other hand (see above) with in contrast. In contrast expresses a marked opposition between two ideas: Chan sharply condemned the diplomatic moves; in contrast, his deputy, Tiong, saw them as an attempt to create political stability. Academic Vocabulary in Use Exercises 44.1 Complete these sentences about comparing and contrasting. 1 The study looked at the different life chances of working-class children...................................... ......................................to those of middle-class children. 2 The results showed a marked......................................{three possible answers) between the two groups of plants being tested. 3 The title of her paper was: 'Retail price differences in large supermarkets: organic foods ......................................to non-organic foods'. 4 My project was a......................................of different styles of industrial architecture in the late 20th century. 5 The result of the second experiment was very different......................................that of the first. 6 It would be interesting to do a......................................between the musical skills of teenage girls and those of teenage boys. 7 The physicist drew an....................................between the big bang and throwing a stone into a pond. 8 Grónsky believes cold fusion will soon be achieved in the laboratory....................................... ......................................, his colleague Ladrass believes cold fusion is simply theoretically impossible. 44.2 Rewrite the sentences using an expression which includes the word in brackets instead of the underlined words. 1 The two groups were not the same as each other, (different) 2 The two groups of children were different, (contrast noun) 3 The three liquids had many things in common with one another, (similar) 4 The data revealed that the informants' responses were different, (differences) 5 The title of her paper was: 'A comparison of male attitudes towards prison sentencing and female attitudes', (compared) 6 In a similar way to the manner in which the economy of the north is booming, the south is also enjoying an economic upturn, (similarly) 44.3 Use linking expressions based on the word(s) in brackets to rewrite these pairs of sentences as one sentence. Make any other changes necessary. 1 The south of the country has little in the way of forests. The north of the country is covered with thick forests, (unlike) 2 A questionnaire is good. In this case, face-to-face interviews are better, (rather) 3 Asian languages such as Vietnamese are quite difficult for learners whose first language is a European one. The opposite is also true, (conversely) 4 Oil is plentiful at the present time. It will run out one day. (hand) 5 Boys tend to prefer aggressive solutions to problems. Girls, on the other hand, prefer more indirect approaches, (whereas) 6 In the post-war period, public transportation enjoyed a boom. Nowadays, it is little used. (reverse) 44.4 Are these statements true or false? Circle T or F. Use a dictionary if necessary. If the statement is false, explain why. 1 If two things are mutually exclusive, one makes the other impossible. T F 2 If two methods of doing something are compatible, they cannot both be used. T F 3 If two things are equated, they are said to be similar or the same. T F 4 If there are parallels between two phenomena, they are very different from each other. T F 5 If there is an overlap between two things, they share some properties. T F Academic Vocabulary in Use 97 45 Describing problems Introducing a problem Note the way words are combined in these extracts from academic articles. As the mining operations became deeper and deeper, the problem of flooding arose1. In a recent survey, 34% of customers experienced difficulties with online buying. Walsh's paper discusses the controversy2 surrounding privatisation of health services. Conservation driven by market forces seems to be a contradiction in terms3. The topic is inadequately treated, and several errors are apparent4 in the analysis. Integrating the new member states poses5 a challenge to the European Union. The research raises6 the issue of rainforests and the people who live in them. The patient had difficulty in remembering very recent events. Most theories of the origin of the universe contain inconsistencies7. The results revealed shortcomings8 in the design of the questionnaire. 1 question/issue/difficulty/controversy also often combine with arise 2 a lot of disagreement or argument about something 3 a combination of words which is nonsense because some of the words suggest the opposite of some of the others 4 can be seen 5 threat/problem/danger also are often used with pose; the verb present can also be used with these nouns 6 question/problem also are often used with raise 7 if a reason, idea, opinion, etc. has inconsistencies, different parts of it do not agree 8 faults or a failure to reach a particular standard Responding to a problem verb noun example meaning react react/ reaction It was a study of how small firms react to the problem of over-regulation. act in a particular way as a direct result of respond response The Minister's response to the problem of inflation was to impose a price freeze. his/her reaction to what has happened or been said or done deal with How should training courses deal with the issue of violence in the healthcare setting? take action in order to solve a problem tackle Governments do not seem to be able to tackle the problem of urban congestion. try to deal with address Governments need to address the problem of waste from nuclear power plants. (formal) give attention to or deal with mediate mediation The community leaders attempted to mediate between the police and the people. talk to the two groups involved to try to help them find a solution to their problems Solving a problem The researchers solved the problem by increasing the temperature. The team came up with / found a solution to the problem of water damage. By using video, the researchers overcame the problem of interpreting audio-only data. The two governments finally resolved1 the problem of sharing water resources. A successful resolution2 to the crisis came in 1998. The answer to the problem lay in changing the design of the experiment. The book was entitled: 'Conflict Resolution: the Management of International Disputes'. 1 (more formal) solved or ended 2 noun form of the verb 98 Academic Vocabulary in Use Exercises 45.1 Match the beginning of each sentence with the most appropriate ending. 45.2 45.3 § 1 Students always seem to have difficulty 2 Ford pointed out that the methodology had 3 The need to find replacement fuels poses 4 The media continue to focus on the controversy 5 In the figures he presented several errors were 6 On their way across Antarctica they experienced 7 The results of the opinion poll raise 8 Problems caused by pollution in this area surrounding the President, apparent. some important questions for the Party. many difficulties. arose fairly recently. in remembering this formula. a number of inconsistencies. considerable challenges for scientists. There is a preposition missing in each of these sentences. Add it in the right place. 1 It is no easy task mediating unions and management. 2 In this lecture I plan to deal the later novels of Charles Dickens. 3 The answer to most problems in agriculture lies the soil. 4 He thought for a long time but was unable to come with a solution. 5 Green tourism may initially feel like a contradiction terms. 6 I wonder what the professor's reaction the article will be. 7 The company has experienced a number of difficulties the computer operating system. 8 Have you found a solution the problem yet? Complete these tables. Use a dictionary to help you if necessary. noun verb solve reaction contain error noun verb resolution respond contradiction mediate 45.4 Choose one of the words from the tables in 45.3 to complete each sentence. You may need to change the form of the verbs. 1 The professor was very angry when the student.................................him so rudely and so publicly. 2 As the saying goes, to......................................is human - we all make mistakes. 3 I hope someone will eventually come up with a.............................. to the problem of global warming. 4 The diplomats are hoping to......................................between the two sides and so prevent a conflict. 5 The library......................................many rare and beautiful books. 6 I am still waiting for the committee's......................................to my request for an extension for my dissertation. 7 At the beginning of the new academic year Marie..................................to make much more effort with her assignments. 8 The lecturer......................................very angrily when I questioned one of her conclusions. ES] Much academic work is based on asking questions or raising problems and finding solutions to CV them. Find an article relating to your own discipline which discusses a problem. Note down any u I interesting vocabulary that you find there. Academic Vocabulary in Use 99 Describing situations Existence and location Look at these extracts from history lectures. Note the words in bold. The existence of a large population of migrant workers put pressure on the country's infrastructure1. Historians noted the absence3 of a clear political ideology in the actions of the workers. We need to look at all the I circumstances2 surrounding r the events of 1926. A. Looking at events in their social context means taking all the factors of a person's social environment into account. The conditions in which the poorest sector of the population lived were bad. The status4 of women was not a serious subject of debate until the 1960s. 1 basic systems and services, such as transport and power supplies 2 facts or events that make the situation the way it is 3 opposite = presence 4 official position, especially in a social group Factors affecting situations (n) = noun (v) = verb (adj) = adjective (opp) = opposite word examples notes constrain (v) constraint (n) Scientists are constrained by the amount of funding they can obtain / are subject to the constraints of funding. being controlled and limited in what they can do restrain (v) restraint (n) Growth in car ownership could be restrained by higher taxes. High land prices are a restraint on the expansion of private housing in the city. limiting the growth or force of something minimum (n/adj) (opp) maximum minimal (adj) The minimum/maximum temperature was recorded at each stage. Damage to buildings was minimal. smallest/largest amount allowed or possible very small in amount confine (v) Major industrial pollution is confined to the big cities in the north of the region. limited to restrict (v) restriction (n) The government took measures to restrict the sale of tobacco products to young people. To fight traffic congestion, the city imposed a restriction of one car per household. limiting something and reducing its size or preventing it from increasing intrinsic (adj) (opp) extrinsic English language is an intrinsic part of the college curriculum. extremely important and basic characteristic of it integral (adj) Users' experiences are integral to the way libraries measure their performance. necessary and important as a part of a whole finite (adj) (opp) infinite Oil is a finite resource; it will run out one day. There is evidence to suggest the universe is infinite. having a limit or end /'famait/ having no limit or end /'infinat/ stable (adj) (opp) unstable stability (n) (opp) instability It takes decades to create a stable democracy. Political instability is a threat to the whole region. if something is stable, it is firmly fixed or not likely to move or change 100 Academic Vocabulary in Use Exercises 46.1 Choose one of the words in bold in A to complete each sentence. 1 To understand the problem, we need to look at all the many factors which may influence development in the child's social and physical....................................... 2 It has been claimed that the......................................of teaching as a profession is not as high as it used to be or as it should be. 3 The infrared aerial photograph seems to show the......................................of a large village around 1,000 years ago. 4 The company's president died in rather suspicious......................................and his son took over. 5 In the......................................of any clear instructions from above, 1 think we should decide ourselves how to proceed. 6 The country can never become a major economic player unless it improves its....................................... 7 1 can't tell you what the word means unless you tell me it in....................................... 8 Students today live in very luxurious......................................compared with students in the past. 46.2 Change the words in bold to the opposite meaning. 1 The economy has been stable for several years. 2 Stability has been a feature of government in the country for the last decade. 3 The northern region possesses an apparently finite supply of uranium. 4 The presence of cholera in the area was noted by scientists in 1978. 5 A minimum temperature of 20 degrees must be maintained at all times. 46.3 Rewrite the sentences without changing the meaning, using the word in brackets. 1 In the 1960s the government restricted the amount of money you could take out of the country, (restriction) 2 The problem exists only in the capital city, (confined) 3 All fossil fuels will run out one day. (resources) 4 In the accident there was very little damage to the car. (minimal) 5 All research is constrained by funding decisions, (subject) 6 The fact that the country is socially unstable deters investors. (social) 7 Normally we would not behave in this way. (circumstances) 8 Most small children believe that fairies exist. (of fairies) 46.4 Choose the best word in italics to complete each sentence. 1 The government has introduced legislation to restrict I constrain smoking in public places. 2 Learning from your mistakes is an infinite I intrinsic part of making progress. 3 Her attempt to confine I restrain the children from making a noise in the library met with little success. 4 The professor always insists that even the most junior research associate is an unstable I integral part of the team. 5 What are the minimum I minimal requirements for getting a place on the course? 6 During the exam period restrictions are posed I imposed on visitors to the college. 7 There were some rather curious circumstances I contexts surrounding the case. 8 The level of taxation in the country is a major constraint I restraint on foreign investment there. Find a news article about a scientific development and read the description of the situation which C9j led to it (often to be found in the introduction). Note any useful general nouns used there. Academic Vocabulary in Use 101 Processes and procedures General nouns and verbs Note the prepositions which follow the nouns in bold. The next stage/step in the process of data collection was to send out 100 questionnaires. The procedure1 for Experiment B was different from that of Experiment A. The application2 of Thoren's method produced some interesting results. They studied the behaviour of large corporations during periods of economic crisis. The team carried out a computer simulation3 of climate change over the next 30 years. Twenty-five subjects were selected from the first group to take part in the second analysis. She designed a course to train students to utilise4 self-motivation strategies. The article sets out to unify5 some concepts in the theory of economic growth. Personal interviews were conducted to supplement6 the statistical data. The experiments were repeated, in order to verify7 the results observed in the original data. 1 carefully controlled set of actions 2 using it for a practical purpose 3 a model of a problem or course of events 4 (formal) use something in an effective way 5 bring together/combine 6 add something to something to make it larger or better 7 make certain that they are correct Social/political/economic processes example with noun equivalent verb meaning The emergence of nation states changed Europe in the 19th century. Nation states emerged in the 19th century. process of appearing or starting to exist The paper is a study of water consumption in Brazil during 2001. Millions of litres of bottled water are now consumed. process of using fuel, energy, food, etc. Ratification of the trade agreement took place in 2004. The agreement was ratified in 2004. process of making an agreement official Security of supply is the most important priority in the gas industry. The new pipeline will secure gas supplies for the region. (formal) process of getting something Before the advent of computers, scientific analysis was a slow process. Before computers were developed/invented, analysis took a long time. arrival of an invention (the noun has no verb form) Technological processes and procedures Look at these questions on a college website dealing with computer problems. Is there any way to automate1 the process of converting a large number of text files to PDF format? How can I display2 different values on the same bar in a bar graph? How can 1 export3 data from my REFS software to a list of references in my dissertation? Is there a fast way to input4 questionnaire results into a database? How can I insert5 a footnote into my paper? How can I save the numerical output6 from the BIGSTATS program as a text file? 1 make a process be operated by machines or computers, instead of by humans 2 arrange something or a collection of things so that they can be seen 3 copy a large amount of it either to a different part of the computer's storage space or to another form of storage 4 put them into the computer's system 5 add 6 results produced by the programme 102 Academic Vocabulary in Use Exercises 47.1 47.2 47.3 Choose the best word in italics to complete each sentence. 1 It is sensible to unify I select I verify your results before publishing them. 2 Hip replacement is usually a simple medical application I procedure I behaviour. 3 Many students supplement I utilise I verify their scholarships by doing some part-time work. 4 A computer stage I procedure I simulation shows what will happen if the ocean current does indeed change direction and start flowing from the Arctic to the West Indies. 5 As the next step I behaviour I application in our study we plan to carry out interviews. 6 Her aim is to form I design I function a radically different type of electric engine. Rewrite each sentence, replacing the underlined word with a word from B or C opposite. Both the underlined words and the replacement words are correct in academic English; the difference is that the replacement words are more formal. 1 It is hardly surprising that people use far more electricity than they did ten years ago. 2 The arrival of the mobile phone has transformed the way young people manage their social lives. 3 The software allows you to present your data in a range of different types of chart. 4 A number of talented new designers have appeared this year. 5 You've missed out a letter here - you need to add a p between the a and the t. 6 He spent many years trying to create a machine that would automatically sort large numbers of coins. 7 The research assistants had to put in a huge amount of data to run the experiment. 8 The political party managed to gain more support than was anticipated. Complete these tables and add the preposition which usually follows the verb or noun where you see (+). Use a dictionary for prepositions not given on the opposite page. verb noun apply (+) (+) behave (+) simulate (+) (+) selection (+) design (+) ratify (+) (+) insertion verb noun verification (+) utilisation (+) emerge (+) (+) consume (+) secure (+) (+) input display (+) 47.4 Choose a word from the tables in 47.3 to complete each sentence. 1 The article traces the................ of Korea as a major economic force. 2 Because of the drought everyone has been asked to reduce their water....................................... 3 I think it would be a good idea to............................... some tables into the first part of your article. 4 It took considerable negotiations before all parties were prepared to......................................the treaty. 5 This course will focus on the......................................of theory to practice. 6 It took me a long time to ....................................into the computer all the data from the survey. 7 Most psychology students choose to do a course on animal....................................... 8 My instructor gave some useful advice on how to................. a new group of experiments. Use a dictionary to find some typical word combinations for these words — process, procedure and stage.Then write five sentences about aspects of your own subject using five of the word combinations. Academic Vocabulary in Use 103 Describing change Historical changes and their effects The transition1 from agriculture to industry challenged the economic and political status quo2 in many countries. Millions of people abandoned3 villages and rural areas and moved into cities. The shift4 away from self-sufficiency meant most people became dependent on large corporations in one way or another, and had to adapt5 to new social environments and adjust6 to new ways of doing things. The move7 towards smaller, nuclear families brought about fundamental8 changes in family patterns in many parts of the world. Maintaining9 the old ways became increasingly10 difficult. On the other hand, the elimination" of diseases such as smallpox transformed12 millions of people's lives, and the expansion13 of healthcare in many countries saved countless lives. Technology enhanced14 most people's lives in some way. For many people, nonetheless, the negative impact15 of technology on the environment altered16 the way we think of our relationship with nature, and sustainable17 development, rather than development for its own sake, became an important goal for a number of countries. 1 change from one form to another 2 the situation as it was at that time 3 left for ever 4 change in position or direction 5 change to suit different conditions 6 become more familiar with a new situation 7 action taken to achieve something 8 in a very basic way 9 not allowing them to change 10 more and more 11 removal of 12 changed completely so that they are better 13 increase in size or extent 14 improved the quality of 15 powerful effect that something, especially something new, has on a situation 16 changed (usually slightly) 17 causing little or no damage to the environment and therefore able to continue for a long time More verbs for describing change The exchange rate between the euro and the dollar has fluctuated recently, [changed or varied, especially continuously and between one level and another] The technicians modified the flow of oil through the engine, [changed it slightly to improve it] The company's lawyers amended the contract to take account of the new situation, [changed the words of a text, typically a law or a legal document] Seven power plants were converted from oil to gas. [caused to change in form or character] After 20 years of trading in the US, the firm transferred their operations to Brazil, [moved] The economy recovered after three years of depression, [returned to a satisfactory condition] Oil supplies are diminishing rapidly. Acquiring new supplies is vital for many countries, [becoming less; (formal) obtaining, getting] We need to refine our analysis to obtain more accurate results, [improve it, especially by removing unwanted material] The government relaxed controls on imports in 1997. [make less strict or severe] Plans have been drawn up to restore 50,000 acres of wetland to their former state, [return something or someone to an earlier good condition or position] Adjectives which often describe change There was a gradual change in attitudes in the 1980s, [slow, over a long period of time] A sudden change in the temperature of the liquid occurred after some minutes. There is a marked change in how people perceive antisocial behaviour, [very noticeable] There was no perceptible change in the learning outcomes between Time 1 and Time 2. [which could be perceived, i.e. noticed or seen] A change in and a change of are different. A change in temperaturelbehaviQurlattitudesI composition/policy, etc. suggests a process where something has become different (e.g. smaller, more radical). A change of dothing/government/approoch, etc. means the complete substitution of one thing for another. 104 Academic Vocabulary in Use Exercises 48.1 Fill in the missing words in each sentence with a word formed from the same root as the tirif word in brackets. You may need a dictionary to help you with items 7 to 10. 1 There has been an enormous......................................in aviation in recent years, (expand) 2 Economists are increasingly concerned that development should be....................................... (sustain) 3 There has been no.....................................change in the patient's condition. (perceive) 4 The survey found that most people feel that modern life is becoming...................................... difficult, (increase) 5 Industrial......................................has, of course, transformed people's working lives, (develop) 6 The group's aims include the......................................of famine and poverty. (eliminate) 7 The apparatus worked well after we had made some......................................to it. (modify) 8 With increasing unemployment many people have had to make ..................................to their lives. (adjust) 9 Many linguists have studied first language......................................, or how people learn their mother tongue. (acquire) 10 There is unlikely to be any.....................................of controls in the near future, (relax) 48.2 Answer these questions about the language in this unit. 1 If prices fluctuate what do they do? 2 If a disease is eliminated how much of it remains? 3 If interest in something is diminishing is it becoming less or more? 4 If there is a marked change in someone's behaviour is it a big or a small change? 5 If most people feel that mobile phones enhance their lives, do they feel that their lives have become better or worse? 6 If controls on imports are relaxed do they become more or less strict? 48.3 Choose the best word in italics to complete each sentence. 1 The economy now seems to be recovering I amending. 2 Many people now are converting I transforming to using solar power. 3 Our survey did not succeed in getting all the information we need and so we shall have to diminish I refine our questions a little. 4 Why do some people abandon I shift their families and disappear without a word? 5 It takes most people some time to alter I adjust to living in a new country. 6 In recent years most societies have seen a major change in the transition I status quo. 7 It is increasingly hard to adapt I maintain traditions in the face of progress. 8 There have been some attempts to restore I alter the environment to its original state. 48.4 Which preposition is needed to complete each phrase? 1 a change.............................the climate 2 to transfer money.............................a Swiss bank account 3 a shift..................................................... the countryside towards the towns 4 to have an impact ..........................the cost of living 5 to relax controls.............................immigration 6 to adjust.............................changes 7 the transition.......................... one period to the next 8 to adapt.............................a new way of life Academic Vocabulary in Use 105 49 Evaluation and emphasis Adjectives for evaluating: opening sentences from science articles The first comprehensive1 survey of coral reefs is being carried out in the Indian Ocean. Fundamental2 problems exist in current theories of the universe, a physicist claims. A ground-breaking3 discovery has been made in research into ageing and death. Important new information about the planets has been gained from the Orbis space probe. Working hours have increased and pressures at work have become more intense in the UK. A crucial stage in global warming could be reached within ten years, scientists say. The search for a unified theory of the human mind is misguided4, says a psychologist. The discovery of a dinosaur-like bone fossil in Africa is unique, according to scientists. In 1997, Irkan published a significant piece of research on open structures in bridges. Current responses to the global energy crisis are inadequate, a scientist has warned. 1 complete, including everything that is necessary 2 basic, from which everything else originates very new and a big change 4 based on bad judgement or on wrong information or beliefs Teachers' evaluations of student assignments • Good! The only criticism I have is that there is a notable1 lack of key references to work before 1990. You should have given credit to2 earlier work by Wilson and Healey. • I am concerned about the validity3 of some of your analysis, and as a result, some of your conclusions may be invalid. Significantly, you had problems in Section C. • I don't think the two different analyses you did are compatible4. It is not surprising that you had problems matching the two results, which could be viewed as almost contradictory. • There are some solid5 arguments in Section A, but I think your conclusion in B is mistaken and lacks hard6 evidence. Your data are* rather limited. [*may also sometimes be is] 1 important and deserving attention 2 stated the importance of 3 basis in truth or reason 4 able to exist successfully together 5 of a good standard; giving confidence or support 6 clear, able to be proven Other evaluative expressions It is noteworthy that Holikov (1996) also had difficulty explaining the phenomenon. It is worth recalling that three previous studies failed to find a link between the two events. We should recognise/acknowledge how difficult it is to interpret these data. These results are borne out by1 two other studies: Hermann (1998) and Wilson (2001). In his seminal2 work, Abaka challenges3 current techniques, revealing flaws4 in data interpretation. 1 confirmed, shown to be true 2 containing important new ideas, very influential 3 questions whether they are correct 4 faults, mistakes or weaknesses; we can say a method is flawed (adj) Emphasising The research underlined/highlighted the need for a new social policy for childcare. • When used at the beginning of a sentence for extra emphasis, negative expressions are followed by inversion of the subject and verb. A form of do is used when there is no other auxiliary or modal verb. Under/In no circumstances / On no account is it right to video people without consent. Seldom/Never (before)/Rarely in the history of Europe has there been such a crisis. In no way / By no means does this new study invalidate existing studies. Only in 1985 did the government accept that something needed to be done urgently. 106 Academic Vocabulary in Use Exercises 49.1 Look at A and answer the following questions about the adjectives there. 1 Which two adjectives have negative associations? 2 Which adjective sounds most positive and exciting? 3 Which two words can be quite close synonyms and could be used, for example, in the phrase to play a(n)......................................role in the development oft 4 Which word has a similar meaning to the adjectives in 3 but is stronger or more extreme? 5 Which word means the only one of its type} 49.2 Choose the best words from the box to complete each of these sentences. acknowledged borne challenged credit crucial evidence flawed flaws ground-breaking limited mistaken seminal validity viewed 1 Nierinck gave......................................to the input of her research associates and ...........................that they had played a......................................role in the project. 2 Unfortunately, these results are not......................................out by other work in the field and you are...................................to claim that there is hard.................................to support your theory. There are......................................in some of your calculations, and they need redoing. 3 Herbert......................................Evensson on the......................................of his conclusions claiming that his data were......................................and were too......................................to be reliable. 4 This superb article can be.................................... as a ....................piece of work which has made ......................................discoveries about the nature of cancerous cells. 49.3 Rewrite these sentences beginning in the way indicated. 1 It is by no means certain that all the students will pass their final exams. By no means......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2 Never before had he taught such an outstanding student. He.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 3 The country has rarely witnessed such a display of public feeling. Rarely..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................._.. 4 In no way will we be able to halt the process of global warming. We .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 5 Students will not be allowed to defer the completion of their thesis longer than one month under any circumstances. Under no circumstances..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6 We will only know the answer when we gather a lot more data. Only when we................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 49.4 Rearrange the letters to make the word that fits the sentence. 1 The study__________the need for more research. shhhltogg 2 I don't find your arguments either_____or convincing. doils 3 Unfortunately, the two studies came up with results which were not __________. abcelimopt 4 She wrote the first_____________study of this___period of Athenian history. oircpmeenhves / yek 5 It is______________that his work was initially criticised for being tOO_______. trowh / llarignec / imitlde 6 The article__________the importance of literacy and numeracy skills in early education, dlsrjenren Academic Vocabulary in Use 107 Summary and conclusion Conclusions and summaries: typical paragraph starters Summarising is concerned with expressing the most important facts or ideas about something or someone in a short and clear form. Concluding is concerned with (a) stating your position or opinion after considering all the information about something, or (b) stating that you have come to the end of something. Recapitulating is concerned with briefly repeating your main points. Read these openings of the final paragraphs of academic articles. Note the useful expressions. As we have seen, the data are consistent across the three separate tests. To conclude / In conclusion, it seems that women's greater risk of depression is a consequence of gender differences in social roles. To recapitulate1 the findings of the present experiments: mothers' speech to young children was simpler than their normal speech. From these comparisons we may draw the following conclusions. As was expected, there are large differences between Russia and the two Nordic countries (Finland and Sweden). To sum up / To summarise / In summary2, in the case of high achievers in all professions, emotional competence is twice as important as purely mental abilities. In short3, emotional competence is the key. To bring the paper to a close4, I summarise the main points5 here: siblings influence the development of behaviour, and problems among siblings are linked to other problems. 1 a less formal alternative is the short form to recap 2 (more formal) can also be in sum 3 used before describing something in as few words and as directly as possible 4 or bring to an end 5 or summarise the key points Other useful words and expressions for summarising and concluding We may summarise the findings in a few words: conserving wetlands is an urgent priority. The final point to stress is that pay is rarely the only factor in industrial disputes. To put it briefly / Stated briefly, complex motives contribute to strikes, [final is more formal than last] Praditsuk (1996) provides/gives a (brief) summary of Asian economic cooperation. In the abstract of the article, the authors claim to have made a breakthrough in cancer research, [shortened form of an article, book, etc., giving only the most important facts or arguments, usually printed at the beginning of the book or article] The government only published a precis of the report, not the full report, [/'preisi/ a short form of a text which briefly summarises the important parts] In this essay, I have attempted to review concisely the arguments in favour of intellectual property rights in relation to the internet, [in academic style it is common to say that you have attempted/tried to argue or demonstrate something instead of directly saying you did it; concisely means in a short and clear way, without unnecessary words] On balance, the overall picture seems to be that the political climate influences corporate strategy, [after thinking about the different facts or opinions; general rather than in particular] In the final/last analysis, the only safe prediction is that the future is likely to be very different from the present, [said when talking about what is most important or true in a situation] Don't confuse lastly and at last. Lastly refers to the final point or item in a list or a series of points being discussed, and is similar to finally. At last refers to something which happens after people have been waiting for it for a long time. Remember, eventually does NOT mean 'perhaps'. It means 'in the end, especially after a long time or a lot of effort, problems, etc.' 108 Academic Vocabulary in Use Exercises 50. i Look at A. Rewrite each sentence, using the word in brackets. 1 To conclude, the tests suggest the drug has no dangerous side effects, (conclusion) 2 In short, losing the war was a humiliating defeat for the country on a number of different levels, (summarise) 3 To sum up, it is impossible to blame the disaster on one person alone. (summary) 4 From the survey we can conclude that advertising has a stronger effect on teenage girls than on other groups of the population, (draw / come give two answers) 5 To recap, there were a number of different reasons why the experiment was less successful than had been hoped, (recapitulate) 50.2 Choose a word from the box to complete each sentence. abstract analysis balance close eventually points provide put words 1 On......................................it would seem that more people are against the proposed law than for it. 2 Authors submitting an article for the journal are requested to provide a brief...................................... outlining the contents of their article. 3 To......................................it briefly, General Pachai's attempts to manipulate the situation to his own advantage......................................led to his own downfall. 4 Most theses......................................a summary of the literature in the field in their opening chapter. 5 In the final......................................no one can be completely certain as to what caused the crash. 6 To summarise the problem in a few......................................: manufacturing in the country has declined drastically in the last ten years. 7 Let us now recap the main......................................in the argument. 8 Before bringing this paper to a..................................... , I should like to suggest some areas requiring further research. 50.3 Choose either lastly or at last to complete each of these sentences. 1 After several months of negotiations, the two sides have......................................reached agreement. 2 First, we shall consider the causes of the war, then we shall look at the events of the war and,......................................, we shall discuss the consequences of the war. 3 She decided not to apply to Melbourne University. First and foremost, her marks were not likely to be good enough but also her parents did not want her to apply there. ......................................, none of her friends were considering going there. 4 My brother was very relieved when,......................................, he finished writing his dissertation. 5 Many congratulations on having reached the final unit of this book....................................... 50.4 What can you learn about the difference between the expressions in the end and at the end from these two sentences? Use a dictionary if necessary. 1 In the end, the government realised that the tax law had been a mistake and abolished it. 2 At the end of the book, Tao states that privatisation of public services is the solution. 50.5 Correct the six errors in this paragraph. This paragraph is a precise of Academic Vocabulary in Use. To sum, the book provides 50 units covering key aspects of academic vocabulary. Stated brief, each unit has tempted to present and practise the words that all students need. The overalls aim of the book is to help students not only to understand but also to use academic vocabulary. In bringing the book to a closure, we hope we have helped you and wish you success in your future academic studies. Academic Vocabulary in Use 109 Reading and vocabulary I This section will give you further practice in the kinds of vocabulary you have studied in this book and will help you to become more aware of academic vocabulary as you read. The texts will be useful for you whatever discipline you are studying. Read the text. Use a dictionary if necessary but note that it is not essential to understand every word. Then answer the questions. QcwcL jrlenM Psychologists have long known that having a set of cherished companions is crucial to mental well-being. In addition, a recent study by Australian investigators concluded that our friends even help to prolong our lives. The scientists analyzed data from a decade-long survey called the Australian Longitudinal Study of Aging, which was initiated in 1992. It concentrated on the social environment, general health, lifestyle and age of death of 1,477 persons older than 70 years. Study participants were asked how much personal and telephone contact they had with friends, children, relatives and acquaintances. Researchers were surprised to learn that friendships increased life expectancy to a far greater extent than, say, frequent contact with children and other relatives. This benefit held true even after these friends had moved away to another city and was independent of factors such as socioeconomic status, health and way of life. What exactly underlies this effect on longevity? Apparently, the scientists posit, it is not merely the mutual buoying of spirits that occurs among associates. What is more important is that the support given and received by friends is voluntary and pleasurable and not just the result of a sense of duty or convention. In contrast to our own families, we are able to choose our friends. According to the Australian scientists, the ability to have relationships with people to whom one is important has a positive effect on physical and mental health. Stress and the tendency toward depression are reduced, and behaviors that are damaging to health, such as smoking and drinking, occur less frequently. The investigators speculate that in times of calamity in particular, our support networks can raise our moods and feelings of self-worth and offer helpful strategies for dealing with difficult personal challenges. 1 Which words and expressions in the first paragraph could the following substitute for? 1 friends one loves and cares for 3 extend 5 focused 2 extremely important 4 begun 6 subjects 2 Find in the text a word which: 1 means 'people' (more formal) 3 would be spelt differently in British English. How? 2 means 'is the hidden cause of 4 means a 'serious accident or very bad event' 3 Use words from the text to complete this table. noun verb adjective conventional help help expect expectant pleasure please Once you have read the content of a text, look over it again and check that you know the different forms of important words in it, as in the table above. I 10 Academic Vocabulary in Use Reading and vocabulary 2 Read the text. Use a dictionary if necessary but note that it is not essential to understand every word. Then answer the questions. Of the seven continents, Australia is the flattest, smallest, and except for Antarctica, the most arid. Including the southeastern island of Tasmania, the island continent is roughly equal in area to the United States, excluding Alaska and Hawaii. Millions of years of geographic isolation from other landmasses accounts for Australia's unique animal species, notably marsupial mammals like the kangaroo, egg laying mammals like the platypus, and the flightless emu bird. Excluding folded structures (areas warped by geologic forces) along Australia's east coast, patches of the northern coastline and the relatively lush island of Tasmania, the continent is mostly dry, bleak and inhospitable. Australia has been less affected by seismic and orogenic (mountain building) forces than other continents during the past 400 million years. Although seismic (earthquake) activity persists in the eastern and western highlands, Australia is the most stable of all continents. In the recent geological past, it has experienced none of the massive upheavals responsible for uplifting the Andes in South America, the Himalayas in south Asia or the European Alps. Instead Australia's topography is the end result of gradual changes over millions of years. Australia is not the oldest continent, a common misconception arising from the continent's flat, seemingly unchanged expanse. Geologically it is the same age as the Americas, Asia, Africa, Europe and Antarctica. But Australia's crust has escaped strong earth forces in recent geological history, accounting for its relatively uniform appearance. As a result, the continent serves as a window to early geological ages. ^p|itt'H5 ef Australia fxt** Ant<*rct»«a About 95 million years ago, tectonic forces (movements and pressures of the earth's crust) split Australia from Antarctica and the southern supercontinent of Gondwanaland. Geologists estimate that the continent is drifting northward at a rate of approximately 18 inches (28 cm) per year. They theorize that south Australia was joined to Antarctica at the Antarctic regions of Wilkes Land, including Commonwealth Bay. Over a period of 65 miUion years, begirining 160 million years ago, Australia's crust was stretched hundreds of miles by tectonics before it finally cleaved from Antarctica. 1 True or false? Write T or F after these statements. If they are false, say why. 1 Australia is the driest continent in the world. 2 Australia has some animals which no other continent has. 3 These animals came to Australia when it was still joined to other landmasses. 4 There is no seismic activity nowadays in Australia. 5 The general geological appearance of Australia is very different in its different regions. 2 Underline in the text word combinations which mean: 1 approximately the same 4 a wrong idea which many people believe is true 2 huge changes 5 which apparently has remained the same 3 result of a series of events or a long process 3 Which word in the text means: 1 having a lot of green, healthy plants, grass and trees 2 not suitable for humans to live in 3 a metaphor that means 'something that enables you to see and learn about a situation' 4 develop a set of ideas to explain something EXh Find a general geography text about your own country or region written in English and make a Cfl note of any useful word combinations you find there. Reading and vocabulary I I I Reading and vocabulary 3 Read the text. Use a dictionary if necessary but note that it is not essential to understand every word. Then answer the questions. Until the appearance of the World Wide Web (WWW), the Internet was mainly used by people who had some computer expertise. File transfer protocol (FTP) was the standard method by which data could be stored on or removed from a server, and if a document that had been transmitted had references to other documents then it was not straightforward to access them. In other words, FTP does not link separate documents together. In 1992, Tim Berners-Lee, working at Europe's high-energy physics research centre in Switzerland, wrote the first browser program which used a protocol called hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP]. This operates as follows: When a client requests a Web server to send a document, the request is sent using HTTP (rather than FTP). The Web server finds the document in its memory and transmits it along with extra information. It is this extra information that distinguishes a Web server from an Internet server. The extra information transmitted is composed of two main parts: * control codes, using hypertext markup language (HTML), by which the client computer screen can display the document, i.e. the layout, headings, bordering, etc. Images can be transmitted as separate files and incorporated on the visible page by HTML code. * links to other documents. These links are specific words or phrases in the text of the transmitted document that will allow related documents to be accessed. When the mouse pointer of the client computer is moved over the document on the screen, the arrow changes to a hand with a pointing finger whenever it falls on any hypertext. If the user clicks on this link, the browser will automatically set up the link address and request the appropriate Web server to transmit the new document to the client. When this new document arrives, it is displayed on the screen. A browser, therefore, is a program, stored in the client's computer, that is able to read hypertext. While the Internet is the huge collection of computer networks and databases connected by backbone cable and optic fibre, the WWW is essentially a browsing and searching system. It allows users with virtually no expertise to access the information stored at certain sites on the Internet. 1 From memory if you can, fill in the missing prepositions. 1 until the appearance....................the World Wide Web 2 the method....................which data could be stored 3 the data could be stored on or removed..................a server 4 references....................other documents 5 the server transmits the document.......................................extra information 6 the information is composed............two parts 7 the extra information provides links...................other documents 2 Use words and phrases from the text to rewrite the words in bold. 1 Accessing web pages is easy and simple, and people with almost no expertise use the web. 2 The browser contacts the right server to transmit the document. 3 The WWW is in its basic character a search system. 4 The information added to documents makes web servers different from Internet servers. 5 Years ago, the Internet was mostly used by experts. Search an online encyclopedia for a text on either how the mobile/cell phone system works, or Efl on how the satellite global positioning system (GPS) works. Read the text and make a note of [3 any useful noun + preposition or verb + preposition combinations. I 12 Academic Vocabulary in Use Reading and vocabulary 4 Read the text. Use a dictionary if necessary but note that it is not essential to understand every word. Then answer the questions. The human brain The brain is the most complex organ in the human body. It produces our every thought, action, memory, feeling and experience of the world. This jelly-like mass of tissue, weighing around 1.4 kilograms, contains a staggering one hundred billion nerve cells, or neurons. Each neuron can make contact with tens of thousands of others, via tiny structures called synapses. Our brains form a million new connections for every second of our lives. The pattern and strength of the connections is constantly changing and no two brains are alike. It is in these changing connections that memories are stored, habits learned and personalities shaped, by reinforcing certain patterns of brain activity, and losing others. While people often speak of their 'grey matter', the brain also contains white matter. The grey matter is the cell bodies of the neurons, while the white matter is the branching network of thread-like tendrils - called dendrites and axons - that spread out from the cell bodies to connect to other neurons. The brain also has another, more numerous type of cell, called glial cells. These outnumber neurons ten times over. Once thought to be support cells, they are now known to amplify neural signals and to be as important as neurons in mental calculations. There are many different types of neuron, only one of which is unique to humans and the other great apes, the so-called spindle cells. Brain structure is formed partially by genes, but largely by experience. Only relatively recently it was discovered that new brain cells are being born throughout our lives - a process called neurogenesis. The brain has bursts of growth and then periods of consolidation, when excess connections are pruned. The most notable bursts are in the first two or three years of life, during puberty, and also a final burst in young adulthood. How a brain ages also depends on genes and lifestyle too. Exercising the brain and giving it the right diet can be just as important as it is for the rest of the body. The neurons in our brains communicate in a variety of ways. Signals pass between them by the release and capture of neurotransmitter and neuromodulator chemicals. Some neurochemicals work in the synapse, passing specific messages from release sites to collection sites, called receptors. Others also spread their influence more widely, like a radio signal, making whole brain regions more or less sensitive. 1 Choose the correct word to complete each sentence. Look for words that the underlined words combine with in the article. 1 The skin is the largest organ in the.......................................body. 2 Psychologists disagree as to how exactly memories are......................................in the brain. 3 Humans share almost all of their genes with the other......................................apes such as gorillas. 4 As children become young adults they have......................................of growth. 5 It is important that animals in captivity are given the......................................diet. 6 People have approached the problem in a variety of....................................... 2 Find words in the text which have an opposite meaning: 1 simple (para 1) 4 are fewer than (para 2) 7 initial (para 3) 2 converge (para 2) 5 diminish (para 2) 8 general (para 4) 3 scarce (para 2) 6 wholly (para 3) 9 restrict (para 4) 3 These words from the text can be used in a number of different ways. Write sentences exemplifying three different uses for each of them. matter pass formed cells 4 Highlight six words or phrases that might be used in your discipline. Write sentences using them. Reading and vocabulary I 13 Reading and vocabulary 5 React the text. Use a dictionary if necessary but note that it is not essential to understand every word. Then answer the questions. Nanotechnology Nanotechnology is science and engineering at the scale of atoms and molecules. It is the manipulation and use of materials and devices so tiny that nothing can be built any smaller. Nanornaterials are typically between 0.1 and 100 nanometres (nm) in size - with 1 nm being equivalent to one billionth of a metre (109 m). This is the scale at which the basic functions of the biological world operate - and materials of this size display unusual physical and chemical properties. These profoundly different properties are due to an increase in surface area compared to volume as particles get smaller - and also the grip of weird quantum effects at the atomic scale. Unwittingly, people have made use of some unusual properties of materials at the nanoscale for centuries. Tiny particles of gold for example, can appear red or green - a property that has been used to colour stained glass windows for over 1,000 years. Experimental nanotechnology did not come into its own until 1981, when IBM scientists in Zurich, Switzerland, built the first scanning tunnelling microscope (STM). This allows us to see single atoms by scanning a tiny probe over the surface of a silicon crystal. In 1990, IBM scientists discovered how to use an STM to move single xenon atoms around on a nickel surface. Engineering at the nanoscale is no simple feat, and scientists are having to come up with completely different solutions to build from the 'bottom-up' rather than using traditional 'top-down' manufacturing techniques. Some nanornaterials, such as nanowires and other simple devices have been shown to assemble themselves given the right conditions, and other experiments at larger scales are striving to demonstrate the principles of self-assembly. Micro-electronic devices might be persuaded to grow from the ground up, rather like trees. In the short term, the greatest advances through nanotechnology will come in the form of novel medical devices and processes, new catalysts for industry and smaller components for computers. In medicine, for example, we are already seeing research on: new ways to deliver drugs with contact lenses; the directing of drugs to tumours with tiny 'smart bombs'; gold 'nano-bullets' that seek and destroy tumours; starving cancer with nanoparticles; diagnosing diseases such as Alzheimer's, monitoring health and fighting sickness with tiny probes; and growing new organs from scratch. 1 Answer these questions about the word combinations used in the text. 1 In the first paragraph which adjective is used with device} 2 In the second paragraph which verb is used with properties} 3 In the third paragraph which noun is used with make} 4 In the fourth paragraph which adjective is used with nanotechnology} 5 In the fifth paragraph which adverb is used with different} 6 In the sixth paragraph which adjective is used with advances} 2 What other words of the same part of speech as in exercise 1 could be used with device, properties, make, nanotechnology, different and advances} Suggest at least two others. 3 What do these adverbial expressions used in the text mean? 1 unwittingly (para 3) 2 in the short term (para 6) 3 from scratch (para 6) Use a search engine on the web to find a recent article relating to nanotechnology + medicine or computing or industry, depending on which interests you most Make a note of any new interesting new facts and vocabulary that you find there. ■ 14 Academic Vocabulary in Use Reading and vocabulary 6 Read the text. Use a dictionary if necessary but note that it is not essential to understand every word. Then answer the questions. International law: an overview International law consists of rules and principles which govern the relations and dealings of nations with each other. Public International Law concerns itself only with questions of rights between several nations or nations and the citizens or subjects of other nations. In contrast, Private International Law deals with controversies between private persons, natural or juridical, arising out of situations having significant relationship to more than one nation. In recent years the lines between public and private international law have became increasingly uncertain. Issues of private international law may also implicate issues of public international law, and many matters of private international law have substantial significance for the international community of nations. International Law includes the basic, classic concepts of law in national legal systems - status, property, obligation, and tort (or delict). It also includes substantive law, procedure, process and remedies. International Law is rooted in acceptance by the nation states which constitute the system. Customary law and conventional law are primary sources of international law. Customary international law results when states follow certain practices generally and consistently out of a sense of legal obligation. Recently the customary law was codified in the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties. Conventional international law derives from international agreements and may take any form that the contracting parties agree upon. Agreements may be made in respect to any matter except to the extent that the agreement conflicts with the rules of international law incorporating basic standards of international conduct or the obligations of a member state under the Charter of the United Nations. International agreements create law for the parties of the agreement. They may also lead to the creation of customary international law when they are intended for adherence generally and are in fact widely accepted. Customary law and law made by international agreement have equal authority as international law. Parties may assign higher priority to one of the sources by agreement. However, some rules of international law are recognized by international community as peremptory, permitting no derogation. Such rules can be changed or modified only by a subsequent peremptory norm of international law. 1 Find words or phrases in the first paragraph which could be substituted by the following: 1 is made up of 4 contrastingly 7 distinctions 2 regulate 5 disagreements 8 more and more 3 focuses on 6 stemming from 9 bring in 2 Paraphrase these words or phrases from the second paragraph: 1 basic 4 derives from 7 conduct 2 classic 5 in respect to 8 parties 3 is rooted in 6 conflicts with 9 assign 3 Use a dictionary if necessary. Find at least five other words with the same root as each of the following: 1 nation 3 acceptance 5 creator 2 significant 4 extent Find a definition of your own subject area or one specific aspect of it. Write it out. Does it include any of the more general vocabulary from this text? What other interesting words and expressions does it use? Reading and vocabulary I 15 Reference i Formal and informal academic words and expressions There are many differences between formal, neutral and informal vocabulary in English. Here we list a number of words and expressions that are frequent in academic contexts and which may present problems in terms of choosing between formal, neutral and less formal alternatives. You may often hear some of the informal words and expressions during classes, seminars, etc., but be careful not to use them where they are not appropriate, for example in formal essays or dissertations. Use a good dictionary which gives information about formality if you are in doubt. Where words are informal, we make a special note here. Space is provided at the end for you to add further examples of your own. (n) = noun (v) = verb (adj) = adjective formal neutral (or informal where indicated) example or comment accord agreement an accord/agreement between two countries acquire obtain, get (less formal) See Unit 48 address (v) give attention to address / give attention to a topic / an issue address, speak to speak/talk about See Unit 40 adjudicate judge adjudicate/judge a contest/dispute administer give administer/give a drug/medicine to a patient advantages and pros and cons See Unit 38 disadvantages (informal) advocate (v) support, encourage We do not advocate/support/ encourage the use of questionnaires with young children. aim set out (to do X) In this paper, we aim/set out to challenge some current assumptions. albeit although See Unit 38 appeal for ask for The police are appealing/asking for any information the public can offer. attempt try, have a shot at (informal) See Unit 1 attire clothes She always wore rather old-fashioned attire/clothes. be accepted / be get in (informal) (for entry into a university or college) offered a place 1 hope to get in / be accepted / be offered a place to study engineering. call on ask (somebody to do something) See Unit 40 catalogue (v) list See Unit 23 characteristic (adj) typical See Unit 4 check go through See Unit 6 compose write e.g. a poem/letter/symphony conduct carry out, do (less formal) (an experiment / research / a study) See Unit 6 conduct (n) behaviour (in the social sense) Such conduct/behaviour is unacceptable. consist of be made up of See Unit 6 I 16 Academic Vocabulary in Use formal neutral (or informal where indicated) example or comment constitute make up See Unit 6 consult (v) read, look at e.g. a document/archive See Unit 23 contest (v) argue against, disagree with contest / argue against / disagree with a judgement convention agreement No written convention/agreement existed until 1984. cordial friendly cordial/friendly relations between governments correct right It took hours of calculations to arrive at the correct/ right answer. deliver give deliver/give a talk/lecture demonstrate show See Units 3 and 12 describe set out See Unit 6 diminish decrease, grow smaller The population has diminished/decreased / grown smaller. discuss go into See Unit 6 dispose of get rid of dispose of / get rid of nuclear waste document (v) record, write about See Unit 23 dormitory dorm BrE = hall of residence See Unit 19 dwelling house, flat, apartment There were originally 50 dwellings/houses/flats/ apartments on the site. endure last The dynasty endured/lasted for eight centuries. examination exam (slightly informal) (formal test) degree examinations/exams examine take, have a look at (informal) See Unit 12 exceed be more, higher, greater than See Unit 7 exchange swap (informal) The tube was exchanged/swapped for one of a larger calibre. final last See Unit 50 hierarchy pecking order e.g. in an institution highlight point up See Unit 6 improper wrong improper/wrong procedure in excess of over, higher than See Unit 7 in greater detail in more detail See Unit 40 in respect of, with respect to with regard to, as far as X is concerned, as far as X goes (informal) See Unit 16 in sum, in summary in short, to sum up, summing up See Units 1,40 and 50 inappropriate unsuitable inappropriate/unsuitable form of words incorrect wrong (rather more direct than incorrect) The totals in column 3 are incorrect/wrong. incur result in, experience See Unit 21 instigate initiate, start something See Unit 35 instruct direct, order instruct/direct/order somebody to carry out a task Reference I 17 formal neutral (or informal where indicated) example or comment investigate look into (slightly informal) investigate / look into a problem laboratory lab See Unit 41 maintain keep See Unit 48 make reference to refer to See Unit 23 negotiations talks negotiations/talks between governments nevertheless having said that See Unit 40 observe point out See Unit 6 occasion time It happened three times / on three occasions. occupation job, profession (on a questionnaire) Question 3:What is your occupation/profession ? omit, not attend something skip (informal) skip a lecture, skip/omit a chapter pledge promise as a noun or as a verb pose ask pose/ask a question See Unit 12 postgraduate postgrad (informal) See Unit 18 present put forward an idea/view/theory, etc. See Unit 6 primarily mainly See Unit 5 recapitulate recap See Unit 50 recently lately These animals have not been seen recently/lately. representative rep (informal) She's the student representative/rep on the Departmental Committee. resign quit (informal) The President resigned/quit in 1986. resolve solve, end resolve/solve a problem, resolve/end a conflict rest on be based on See Unit 14 return come back, go back, get back See Unit 40 revise look back over, go over See Unit 6 sanction (v) permit The government cannot sanction law breaking. secure (v) obtain, get (informal) e.g. secure oil supplies See Unit 47 sole(ly) only See Unit 1 somewhat slightly, a little, a bit (informal) See Unit 5 speak of talk of, talk about (less formal) See Unit 14 spouse husband, wife The President's spouse/husband/wife attended the ceremony. substantial large, big a substantial number/amount See Unit 7 treat deal with This issue was not treated / dealt with fully in Holstedt's earlier work. undergraduate undergrad (informal) The undergrads/undergraduates mostly live in halls of residence. I 18 Academic Vocabulary in Use formal neutral (or informal where indicated) example or comment undertaking (n) promise an official undertaking/promise to do something utilise use something effectively utilise a resource/method virtually almost, more or less See Unit 1 write of write about See Unit 14 X is not possible / not correct There's no way X ... (rather informal) See Unit 1 Yours faithfully Yours sincerely, best wishes (less formal), best (informal) way of ending a letter or email Reference I 19 Reference 2 Numbers, units of measurement and common symbols You know how to say all the numbers in English. Here we look at how combinations of numbers are said aloud. BrE = British English AmE = North American English For spelling differences between BrE and AmE, see Reference 4. Fractions Fractions are normally spoken as in these examples: I a (one) half 4 a (one) quarter \ three quarters j a (one) fifth j two thirds \ kilometre a quarter of a kilometre { centimetre half a centimetre Complex fractions and expressions of division are usually said with over. 27 twenty-seven over two hundred 200 twenty-seven divided by two hundred Decimals Decimals are normally spoken as in these examples: 0.36 nought point three six (BrE) zero point three six (AmE) 5.2 five point two Percentages Percentages are spoken as per cent. 16.3% sixteen point three per cent Calculations Calculations are normally said in the following ways: 7 + 3 = 10 seven and three is/are ten (informal) seven plus three equals ten (more formal) 28 - 6 = 22 six from twenty-eight is/leaves twenty-two (informal) twenty-eight minus six equals twenty-two (more formal) 8x2= 16 eight twos are sixteen (informal BrE) eight times two is sixteen (informal) (the most common form in AmE) eight by two is/equals sixteen (informal) eight multiplied by two equals/is sixteen (more formal) 27-r 9 = 3 twenty-seven divided by nine equals three 500 ± 5 five hundred plus or minus five >300 greater than three hundred <200 less than two hundred 120 Academic Vocabulary in Use 32 = 9 three squared is/equals nine Vl6 = 4 the (square) root of sixteen is four 33 = 27 three cubed is/equals twenty-seven 3V8 = 2 the cube root of eight is two 24 = 16 two to the power of 4 is/equals sixteen (AmE = two to the fourth power ...) Units of measurement Although the metric system is now common in the UK and other English-speaking countries, non-metric units are still used in many contexts, especially in the USA. Units of length and distance are normally spoken as follows: 3 in, 3" three inches 2 ft 7 in, 2' 7" two feet seven inches (or, very informally, two foot seven inches) 500 yds five hundred yards 3 m (AmE = 3 mi.) three miles 500 mm five hundred millimetres (or, more informally, five hundred m-m) 1.5 cm one point five centimetres Units of area are normally spoken as follows: 11 sq ft eleven square feet 5 sq m, 5m2 five square metres 7.25 cm2 seven point two five square centimetres Units of weight are normally spoken as follows: 3 oz three ounces 5 lb five pounds 300 g three hundred grams 18.75 kg eighteen point seven five kilograms Units of volume, capacity and temperature are normally spoken as follows: 300 cc three hundred cubic centimetres (or, less formally, three hundred c-c) 5 pt five pints 3.2 gal three point two gallons 75 cl seventy-five centilitres 200 1 two hundred litres 20° twenty degrees Common symbols 6 'ampersand' - this symbol is read as 'and' * asterisk © copyright symbol ™ trademark symbol ® registered trademark • bullet point / BrE = tick; AmE = check X BrE = cross; AmE = an 'X' # BrE = hash symbol (Note: in American English, this symbol is used for numbers, e.g. #28 AmE; no. 28 BrE) @ this symbol is read as 'at' - used in email addresses oo infinity symbol " this symbol is read as 'ditto' - used in lists to avoid writing a word if the same word is written immediately above it Reference 121 Reference 3 British and North American academic vocabulary There are numerous differences in vocabulary between the English of the UK and Ireland, and the English of the USA and Canada, the two dominant areas which have historically influenced English in many other parts of the world. However, there is also a great amount of mixing, and Americans and Canadians are often familiar with British and Irish usages, and vice versa. So the table below is for general guidance only. Also, nowadays, thanks to the media and the internet, American vocabulary is influencing and being imported into British, Irish and international English more and more. In the case of Ireland, this is more noticeable than in Great Britain. Other important varieties of English, such as Indian, Australian, African, Caribbean, etc., also have their own words and phrases, but have probably, for historical reasons, had less influence overall on international usage or academic usage in particular. The first column of the table shows words and phrases that are commonly used in North American English, but which are not used, or used to a far lesser extent, in British and Irish English, and which are likely to occur in academic texts or in general college and university contexts and student life. Be prepared to meet others in everyday life in English-speaking countries. See also Units 18 and 19 of this book. Space is provided at the end for you to add further examples of your own. For differences between British and American grammar, see the special chapter in the Cambridge Grammar of English (published by Cambridge University Press). AmE = North American English BrE = British/Irish English North American Britishllrish comment airplane aeroplane antenna aerial apartment flat Both forms are heard increasingly in BrE. apartment building block of flats attorney lawyer ATM (automated teller machine) cashpoint bank machine from which one can get money Both forms are used in Irish English. bill note e.g. a 100 dollar bill, a 50 euro note cafeteria canteen Both are common in BrE. candy sweet(s) cart trolley used in a supermarket to carry one's shopping cell phone mobile phone checking account current account bank account for day-to-day use chips crisps coach class economy class cheapest class of air travel condominium, condo (informal) block of flats cookie biscuit small, flat cake cord lead electrical cable joining an appliance to a power connection 122 Academic Vocabulary in Use North American British/Irish comment co-worker workmate crosswalk pedestrian crossing dirt road unpaved road, track district attorney public prosecutor divided highway dual carriageway doctor's office surgery downtown town centre, city centre (the) draft conscription compulsory military service drug store chemist's, pharmacy eggplant aubergine vegetable elementary school primary school elevator lift eraser rubber fall autumn faucet tap for water field pitch a sports area, e.g. football pitch/field flashlight torch a light powered by batteries freeway motorway (French) fries chips long, thin pieces of fried potato, eaten hot (see chips vs crisps) furnace central heating boiler garbage,trash rubbish, refuse (more formal) gas petrol fuel for motor vehicles grounded earthed electrical high school secondary school highway main road Highway in BrE is normally only used in technical and legal/official contexts. intersection crossroads intermission interval e.g. break in a cinema/theatre performance Both forms are common in Irish English. interstate (highway) main/major road, motorway jack socket connection for a telephone landline kindergarten nursery In AmE, kindergarten refers to school for five-year-old children; that is, it is the year before entering first grade. In BrE, nursery refers to a special room for babies, while nursery school refers to a school for children aged 2-5 (also called pre-schoo/). legal holiday bank holiday license plate, license tag number plate on a vehicle line queue locker room changing room for sports mail post mall shopping centre Mall is used more and more in BrE. mass transit public transport Reference 123 North American British/Irish comment movie film movie theater cinema normalcy normality operating room operating theatre hospital outlet socket place to connect for electrical power - BrE also uses power point overpass flyover in a road system parentheses brackets In AmE, the word brackets refers to [ ]. In AmE, parentheses are (). parking garage multi-storey car park parking lot car park penitentiary prison period full stop referring to punctuation petroleum crude oil oil when it comes out of the ground prenatal ante-natal 'before birth' - concerning mothers to be private school private school, public A public school in the UK is a private secondary school school; schools run by the government are called state schools. In the US, private school only refers to schools that are privately owned, never to public institutions. railroad railway recess, break break e.g. gap between activities, for lunch, etc. restroom, bathroom, toilet, loo (informal) Restroom is used for public facilities, whereas washroom (Canada) bathroom refers to facilities in a home. resume curriculum vitae (or CV) round trip return e.g. a round trip / return ticket running shoes, sneakers trainers sales clerk shop assistant sales tax VAT (value added tax) tax added to goods and services at the point of purchase schedule timetable scotch tape sellotape adhesive tape server waiter, waitress senior pensioner, senior citizen sidewalk pavement, footpath social security number national insurance individual personal number used by officials in number connection with tax, social benefits, etc. stop lights traffic lights store shop subway underground (railway) A subway in BrE is an underground tunnel or passageway for pedestrians to cross a road. takeout takeaway meals, food teller cashier person who serves customers in a bank thumbtack drawing pin e.g. used to fix a notice to a noticeboard tractor-trailer articulated lorry, juggernaut 124 Academic Vocabulary in Use North American British/Irish comment trash rubbish, refuse (more formal) trashcan (dust)bin truck lorry, truck two weeks fortnight vacation holiday Vacation is used in BrE universities to mean the periods when no teaching takes place. In AmE, holiday refers to a national day of observance, for example New Year's Day. zee zed last letter of the English alphabet zucchini courgette vegetable zip code (USA), postal code (Canada) postcode Reference 125 Reference 4 Spelling variations Some words are spelt differently in different varieties of English. The main contrasts are between UK/Irish and US English. Other varieties of English tend to opt for either predominantly UK/Irish or predominantly US spellings. The US spelling tends to be simpler and a clearer reflection of the way the word is pronounced. You can, of course, use whichever spelling you prefer but it is sensible to be consistent. The main patterns of spelling variation are shown below. Space is provided in the middle columns for you to add further examples of your own. Word-processing and other computer programs often have spellcheck features that check the spelling of what you write for you. You can usually set these to either UK, US or Australian spelling. However, remember that it is not sensible to rely on the computer to check and correct your spelling for you. A spellcheck program will not pick up the spelling errors in this sentence, for example: / don't no weather their are two many mistakes inn yore righting or knot. pattern of variation examples of UK + Irish spelling examples of US spelling comment words with -ourlor labour, honour, behaviour, endeavour, favourable, rumour labor, honor, behavior, endeavor, favorable, rumor In some words UK spelling prefers the -or form, e.g. humorous, honorary, glamorous. words ending with -er/re centre, theatre, centimetre, litre, lustre center, theater, centimeter, liter, luster UK spelling distinguishes between metre (100 cms) and meter (measuring device). verbs ending in single 1 when they add a suffix cancelling, labelled, counsellor, marvellous, modelled canceling, labeled, counselor, marvelous, modeled Sometimes the double / spelling will also be found in US texts. other words with single or double / fulfil, enrol, enrolment, instalment, skilful, wilful fulfill, enroll, enrollment, installment, skillful, willful The verb to install can be written with either / or II in both UK and US English, although // is more common. words ending with -ogue/og analogue, catalogue, dialogue analog, catalog, dialog The -gue ending can also be found in US texts. 126 Academic Vocabulary in Use pattern af variation examples af UK + Irish spelling examples of US spelling comment verbs ending with -ise/ize and nouns ending with -isationl ization emphasise, minimise, globalise, colonise, organise, standardise, globalisation, colonisation, organisation, standardisation emphasize, minimize, globalize, colonize, organize, standardize, globalization, colonization, organization, standardization Some verbs always end in -ise, e.g. advertise, advise, apprise, arise, comprise, compromise, despise, devise, disguise, enfranchise, enterprise, excise, exercise, improvise, incise, premise, revise, supervise, surmise, surprise. With other words the -izelization endings will also sometimes be found in UK texts. verbs ending with -yselyze analyse, catalyse, paralyse analyze, catalyze, paralyze The nouns analysis, catalysis and paralysis are spelt the same in both UK and US texts. some words ending with